The Physics of Energy sources Renewable sources of energy Part I
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1 The Physics of Energy sources Renewable sources of energy Part I B. Maffei Bruno.maffei@manchester.ac.uk Renewable sources 1
2 Introduction! Definition! Renewable energy source: extraction/generation of energy from resources that are naturally occurring, unlimited or rapidly replenished. We need to replenish the resources from which energy is extracted at least at the same rate than it is consumed! Is it worth it?! So far, renewable sources of energy were expensive in comparison to others! Due to energy price increase (mainly lately) and technological progress renewable sources are becoming competitive. Note: not all renewable sources are necessarily clean Renewable sources 2
3 Purpose! Why do we need these?! As we have seen in lecture 1, fossil fuels (on which we are very dependant) reserves are coming to an end.! Energy demand is increasing! We need to replace/complement these sources by ones that will not disappear! Government white paper on Energy has a target of 10% of energy from renewable sources by % of energy from renewable sources by 2020 At present ~ 3%! Preferably we need clean (or at least cleaner) sources! In order to fulfil the Kyoto treaty Decrease production of greenhouse gases (mainly CO 2 and NO) Target: 60% CO 2 reduction by 2050 (in comparison to 1990 level) The EU is proposing 20% by 2020, 40% by 2030 and 80% cut by 2050! To avoid radioactive waste Fission produces elements that will remain radioactive for several 100,000 years Fusion would produce less waste, less radioactive and for shorter period Renewable sources 3
4 What will we see?! Sources directly extracted from Sun radiation! Solar heating! Solar cells! Sources indirectly extracted from Sun radiation! Bio-fuels! Biomass! Wind power! Hydroelectricity! Wave power! Tidal energy! Geothermal Renewable sources 4
5 Natural energy resources for grab on Earth Renewable sources 5
6 Biomass and Biofuels Renewable sources 6
7 Photosynthesis facts! It is the making (synthesis) of organic structures and oxygen by the action of solar radiation! The creation of these chemical elements is equivalent to energy storage Potential energy! It is the most important renewable energy process! Living organisms made from material fixed by photosynthesis! This is where human metabolism gets its energy from Human metabolism continually releases ~ 150W from food! Photosynthetic output power on Earth ~ W! ~ Equivalent to 10 5 nuclear power plants! Could we use this enormous amount of energy for our needs?! As a renewable source of energy! Without effect on other resources! As a green energy source? Renewable sources 7
8 What is photosynthesis?! It is the absorption of CO 2 and H 2 O to form carbohydrates and proteins! This reaction happens in plants! It is the results of several processes than can be classified in 2 consecutive steps Light dependent reaction: photosynthetic reactions absorption of photons Light independent reactions: Calvin-Benson cycle! It is an endothermic reaction Here the energy is provided by the photons of the solar radiations! The resulting equation can be written as [ CH 2O] H2O( ) CO + H O + photons O + + 2( g) 2 2 ( l) 2( g) ( aq) l [CH 2 O] represents a basic unit of carbohydrate Ex: formation of glucose 6 CO2 + 12H 2O + photons 6O2 + C6H12O6 + 6H2O Renewable sources 8
9 1 st Process: Absorption of radiation! Solar radiation on a leaf is reflected, transmitted or absorbed! Less than 5% of the absorbed radiation is used for photosynthesis The remainder is producing heat to heat the plant or to evaporate water! The energy absorption process leading to photosynthesis:! Is not a thermal effect (raise T increase kinetic energy)! It is more like photoelectric effect: normal state conduction excited state! The absorption spectrum is not flat hν ΔE hν e ΔE + Absorption spectrum of leave Absorption spectra of separated components (lab) Abs spectrum of leave different from sum of individual abs spectra Cooperative interaction of various pigments Renewable sources 9
10 Absorption of radiation (2)! We have 2 photo-sensitive processes: PS2 and PS1 PS2: reduction of water to oxygen hν 4H2O O2 + 2H2O + 4H + + 4e 4 photons needed. ΔE= 1.82eV λ max = 680nm PS1: production of a strong reducing agent NADPH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) 4 other photons needed. ΔE= 1.77eV λ max = 700nm Renewable sources 10
11 2 nd process: dark reaction! The formation of NADPH by PS1 supplies the main reducing agent to fix CO 2 into carbohydrate.! These subsequent reactions occur by ordinary thermal chemistry! The overall Calvin-Benson cycle can be summarised by: + [ CH 2O] + 2NADP + 3ADP + H O Pi + CO + NADPH + 3ATP + 2H ADP and ATP (adenosine di- and tri-phosphate) P i inorganic phosphate Overall result [ CH 2O] H2O( ) CO + H O + photons O + + 2( g) 2 2 ( l) 2( g) ( aq) l This reaction will require the absorption of at least 8 photons. However the difference in the enthalpy between products and reactants is 4.8eV per atom of C. The full ΔH of the resulting reaction is then ΔH=460kJ per mole of C Renewable sources 11
12 How can the carbohydrate be used?! Cellular respiration! Aerobic respiration: process taking place in a cell to get biochemical energy from fuel molecules! This is more or less the reverse reaction than what we have seen with photosynthesis! Ex: oxidation of glucose simplified equation! Combustion O + C H O 6CO + 6H O + ΔH = 2880kJ! The general denomination for photosynthesis products is biomass (+O 2 )! Biomass can then be used for combustion in various forms Note: While combustion requires temperatures of ~ 400C, respiration proceeds by catalytic enzyme reactions at ~ 20C Renewable sources 12
13 Biomass and Biofuels! Biomass is then largely composed of organic material and water! It has then the potential of releasing 460kJ per mole of C! Many other products can be extracted from biomass Renewable sources 13
14 Conclusion on biomass! Biomass provides about 12% of the world energy consumption! Main domestic use is biofuel combustion (wood )! Industrial use is fairly small still Ex: generation of electricity in the USA : 2% from biofuels! Renewable clean energy?! Works if growth must at least be equal to use In this case CO 2 emission is balanced with use through photosynthesis The energy from biomass is then carbon neutral! By replacing fossil fuel (which are not carbon neutral) by biomass we could have a medium long term solution for reducing greenhouse gas emission! However land for culture is limited! Quantity will then be limited! Competition with food production Might not be an issue for countries over-producing food (Europe, USA ) Could be a problem for other countries (ref to 2007 protests against food price increase)! Biodiesel and bio-ethanol are more expensive to produce than from fossil fuels! Could be compensated by tax reduction! Can be produced locally : reduce transport costs! Optimised combustion can reduce CO and CH 4 emission to a minimum Renewable sources 14
15 Summary for Biomass! Results from Photosynthesis! Creation of carbohydrates from H 2 O + CO 2 + Photons! Endothermic reaction ΔH=460kJ per mole of C! 2 consecutive processes 1 st : Light dependent reactions: photosynthetic reactions 2 nd : Light independent reactions: Calvin-Benson cycle! Biomass can be considered as a storage of potential energy! Can be considered as renewable! If consumption = production! Can be considered carbon neutral (with some caveats)! It is potentially a very large source of energy! But has also its disadvantages (see conclusion) Renewable sources 15
16 References! Most of the material of this lecture is coming from! Ref4: Renewable energy resources, J. Twidell and T. Weir, second edition, 2006 Renewable sources 16
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