Entrepreneurship Education: Influencing Students Entrepreneurial Intentions ISSN

Transcription

1 Entrepreneurship Education: Influencing Students Entrepreneurial Intentions ISSN Robert Otuya Kabarak University, Kenya Peter Kibas Kabarak University, Kenya Robert Gichira Jommo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology Kenya Wafula Martin Egerton University, Kenya Abstract: This study examined the effect of entrepreneurship education programmes on entrepreneurial intentions among university students in Kenya. Ajzen s Theory of Planned Behavior (TBP) was adopted and operationalised to address the formation of Kenyan university students entrepreneurial intentions through structural equation modeling. A total of 208 usable questionnaires were collected from one public university offering entrepreneurship major. Data was collected using questionnaires and analyzed largely by quantitative methods. The results of the study indicate that Ajzen s model of planned behavior as operationalised in the study successfully predicted entrepreneurial intentions in Kenya whereas exposure and non exposure to entrepreneurship education explains the differences in entrepreneurial intentions among the students. Further, the findings of the study indicated that the students who have exposure to entrepreneurship courses have higher intentions toward entrepreneurship than their counterparts who have no exposure to entrepreneurship courses. The findings of this study are of assistance to students, educators, policy makers as well as practicing entrepreneurs in understanding the antecedents (motivators) of entrepreneurship. The study recommends that universities should include entrepreneurship courses in all the degree programs. Keywords: Entrepreneurship Education, Entrepreneurial Intentions, University Students, Kenya.

2 1. Introduction: The study of entrepreneurship courses in higher education institutions is one of the most interesting and challenging areas of research for universities, governments, and industrial sectors. Entrepreneurial activities and entrepreneurship education are considered crucial to the economic development of nations. These activities are not only the incubators of technological innovation; they provide employment opportunities and increase competitiveness (Turker and Selcuk, 2009). Furthermore, entrepreneurship education is more than just learning about business management. It is a human capital investment to prepare a student to start a new venture through the integration of experience, skills and knowledge to develop and expand business (Hynes and Richardson, 2007; Nabi and Holden, 2008). The expectation that more and better entrepreneurship education would result in more and better entrepreneurs Matlay, (2008) has driven the proliferation of entrepreneurship courses in universities. Promotion of entrepreneurship within Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) is more likely to increase the interest of the students to choose entrepreneurship as a career where it can raise their attitudes, perceived behavioral control, self efficacy, risk taking and intentions toward entrepreneurship (Wilson, Kickul and Marlino, 2008; Souitaris, Zerbinati, and Al-Laham, 2007). Despite the new emphasis on entrepreneurship education in technical and vocational schools in Sub-Saharan Africa, the literature has largely ignored the phenomenon in HEIs in this region, with the exception of South Africa (Co and Mitchell, 2006). The literature has instead examined the phenomenon in other regions of the world such as Asia and Latin America (Kabongo and Okpara, 2010). Findings from such studies may not be applicable to developing nations such as Kenya. This leaves a gap for this study to examine entrepreneurship courses offered in the universities and determine whether they have an influence on students entrepreneurial intentions. Furthermore, studies on entrepreneurship show that most of the scholars have focused on adult entrepreneurs (Anderson and Robertson, 2000). Since people are likely to start a business within the age range of 25 to 35, Reynolds (2005), it is critical to focus on people who are younger than 25 and explore which factors affect their intentions to start up a business in future. As Anderson and Robertson (2000) stated:.the future working environment will depend on the creativity and individuality of the young. However, indeed relatively little is known about young adult views on entrepreneurship (p.279) International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 133

3 In line with Kenya s Vision 2030, the number of private and public initiatives to train and educate people to be more entrepreneurial has increased in Kenya. One such initiative is the under graduate degrees with entrepreneurship major offered by universities to respond to the increasing interest from students about entrepreneurial careers and awareness from the public authority on the importance of entrepreneurship to economic development. However, survey of Kenya s university students by Bwisa, (2004) and studies in other nations by Robertson and Wilkson (2003); Wu and Wu, (2008); Nabi and Holden, (2008) indicate that although conditions for entrepreneurship have much improved than before, the business start-up intent among the graduates is relatively low, and this remains a big research question. Therefore, whether education does or does not influence their entrepreneurial perceptions and intentions require further research (Collins; Hannon and Smith, 2004). Furthermore, many of the efforts used by the government to promote entrepreneurship focus on the financial capital injected in the youth and women based programs such as the Youth Enterprise Fund and the Women Empowerment Fund disbursed by the Ministry of Youth and Ministry of Gender respectively (Oruoch, and Muchiri, 2007). The training intervention at university level has not been given much attention, hence the need for an assessment of entrepreneurship education to determine its influence on university students entrepreneurial intentions. This will guide the entrepreneurship training policy in Kenyan universities. 2. Literature review and Hypotheses Formulation: There is a general agreement that attitudes towards the entrepreneur, entrepreneurial activity, and its social function are determinant factors for university students to decide an entrepreneurial career (Veciana, Aponte and Urbano, 2005).The exposure to entrepreneurship environment has implication to the development of the attitude and intention. The favorable environments facilitate acceptance and support of intention to become an entrepreneur (Ibrahim, Habshah, and Ooi, 2009). Consequently, the knowledge and skills derived from such an environment leads to perceived behavioral control in entrepreneurship. Attitude towards entrepreneurship is an important aspect which helps to predict potential entrepreneurial behavior in future where students who have the right attitude toward entrepreneurship will be more inclined to depend on themselves to run their own business after graduation rather than being employed (Fitzsimmons and Douglas, 2005; Kolvereid and Isaken, 2006). For instance, Vij and Ball (2010) established that an entrepreneurship module offered to non business students of Northumbria University was able to boost their self International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 134

4 confidence, determination, self-belief, drive to succeed by hard work and acceptance of possible failures. Furthermore, only a few of these students decided that they would rather be in formal employment. A number of studies have shown that entrepreneurship education programs have a significant positive impact on various proxies for entrepreneurship, including entrepreneurial intentions, the desirability and feasibility of entrepreneurial ventures, and various competencies that are associated with entrepreneurship (Souitaris and A-l-Laham, 2007; Wilson, Kickul and Marlino, 2007; Athayde, 2009). In these impact studies, researchers most often draw on the psychology literature to argue that the intention to start up a business is the proxy that best reflects the odds that a person will start a business or not (Souitaris et al. 2007). As a result, the success of entrepreneurship education is measured as a positive change in entrepreneurship as a career choice, and the majority of these studies do in fact show that entrepreneurship education has a positive impact on such intentions (Lepoutre, Berghe, Crijns and Tilleuil, 2010). Based on the above literature, the following hypotheses are formulated: H1: Entrepreneurship education has a significant positive influence on entrepreneurial intentions of university students. H2: Entrepreneurship education has a significant positive influence on personal attitudes of university students. H3: Entrepreneurship education has a significant positive influence on Subjective norms of university students. H4: Entrepreneurship education has a significant positive influence on perceived behavioral control intentions of university students. 3. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework: In order to assess the impact of Entrepreneurship Education Programs (EEP) and in particular to define and measure relevant criteria, the study used the theory of planned behavior (TPB), originally presented by Ajzen (1991), which is an extension of the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). This theory assumes that human social behavior is reasoned, controlled or planned in the sense that it takes into account the likely consequences of the considered behavior (Ajzen and Fishbein, 2000). It asserts that intention is an accurate predictor of planned behavior, especially in cases where the behavior is difficult to observe, International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 135

5 rare, or involves unpredictable lags. Entrepreneurial behavior displays these characteristics, which explains why several empirical studies of entrepreneurship have applied the Theory of Planned Behavior to study entrepreneurship from a psychological perspective (Kolvereid and Isaksen, 2006; Rotefoss and Kolvereid 2005; Krueger, Reilly, and Carsrud 2000; Souitaris et al 2007). The conceptual model that was used by this study to assess the impact of entrepreneurship education programs on entrepreneurial intentions among university students is in line with TPB and was adapted and modified from that used by Fayolle, Gailly and Lassas-Clerc (2006). The independent variable is the entrepreneurship education programmes/courses offered by universities. These programmes influence entrepreneurial intention the antecedent variables that are composed of students subjective norms, personal attitude towards entrepreneurial behaviour, and perceived behavioural control. 4. Methodology: This study employed the descriptive approach. This design is suitable for the study as it sought to describe students perception of their entrepreneurial intentions and how intentions are affected by subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and social norms as impacted by entrepreneurship education programs. A sample of 126 students taking entrepreneurship major (Target Group) and 82 students that had not been exposed to entrepreneurship studies (Control Group) was drawn from Moi University. The sample comprised 62% male and 38% female. The Entrepreneurial Intention Questionnaire (EIQ) that was used for this study is a modified version of the one used by Linan and Chen (2009) and additional constructs designed by the researcher. The EIQ is a newly developed questionnaire based on the existing theoretical and empirical literature about the application of the theory of planned behavior to entrepreneurship (Linan and Urbano, 2009). Thus, it has been carefully cross-checked with those instruments used by other researchers, such as Kolvereid (1996), Kolvereid and Isaksen (2006), Kickul and Zaper (2000), Krueger et al. (2000) and Veciana et al. (2005). The questionnaire was composed of 21 items A1 to A21 measuring the four constructs of the theory of planned behavior: Entrepreneurial Intention (A4, A6, A9-reversed, A13, A17 and A 19-reversed), Attitude towards the behavior (A2-rev-, A10, A12-reve-, A15 and A18), Perceived behavioral control (A1, A5-rev-, A7, A14, A16-rev-, and A20), Subjective norms International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 136

6 (A3, A8, and A11). The questionnaires were administered to the target group and control group students. Target group students were those taking entrepreneurship major, while control group students comprised those that had not been exposed to any course in entrepreneurship education. 5. Results and Discussions: Data was analyzed largely using quantitative methods. Descriptive statistics such as frequency distribution and measures of central tendency were useful in data reduction and item analysis. The conceptual framework takes the form of a structural equation model. This model is viewed as a combination of factor and regression or path analysis. Multiple regressions were therefore used in testing the association of variables. The sample comprised 62% male and 38% female. Majority of the respondents were between 20 and 25 years old with a mean age of 22.5 years. The questionnaire was tested for reliability by using Cronbach Alpha method. Cronbachs coefficient alpha values were generated to determine the internal consistency of the scale used. According to Sekaran (2003), Cronbach alpha is a reliable coefficient that indicates how well the items are positively correlated to one another. The closer Cronbach alpha is to 1, the higher the internal consistency. Cronbach alphas for all the factors were above 0.7 confirming the internal consistency of the constructs. Results are shown in Table 1.1. Variables Cronbach s Alpha Cronbach s Alpha based on standardised item Number Items Personal Attitude Subjective Norm Perceived Behavioral Control Entrepreneurial Intentions Table 1.1: Cronbach s Alpha for the Variables of 5.1.Descriptive Analysis of the Variables: Hypotheses: H1, H2, H3 and H4 concerned the relationship between entrepreneurship education programs and key antecedents of entrepreneurial intentions: personal attitude International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 137

7 towards entrepreneurship (PA), subjective norms (SN), perceived behavioral control (PBC) and entrepreneurial intentions (EI). In order to test these hypotheses to determine whether exposure to entrepreneurship education had an influence on entrepreneurial intentions through the interrelated predictor variables, mean values and t-tests were carried out to obtain the differences between the means of the students that had entrepreneurship education (Target Group) and those who did not have entrepreneurship education (Control Group) at 95 percent confidence levels. These values were computed for Moi University target and control group. Table 1.2 shows the mean values of the four components in the Theory of Planned Behaviour, which enable the interpretation to be made that there is a positive difference in entrepreneurial intentions between the target group and control group students of Moi University. The entrepreneurial intention mean value from the target group sample is compared to of the control group sample. These results show that the students who are exposed to entrepreneurship education have higher intentions towards entrepreneurship as compared to those who have no exposure to entrepreneurship education. The findings are consistent with the previous researches. For instance Peterman and Kennedy (2003) found that students participating in a Young Enterprise Scheme reported a higher intention of starting a new business than those who did not participate in the programme. Similarly, Ibrahim, Habshah and Ooi (2009) also report that students exposed to entrepreneurship studies have higher intentions toward entrepreneurship as opposed to those with no exposure to entrepreneurship courses. These findings also concur with those reported by Lepoutre et al. (2009) and Souitaris et al. (2007) that entrepreneurship education raises students entrepreneurial intentions. According to a survey by Turker and Selcuk (2009), if a university provides adequate instruction and inspiration for entrepreneurship, the possibility of choosing an entrepreneurial career might increase among the youth. The of this study are in agreement with Turker s International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 138

8 because Moi university students pursuing entrepreneurship major show higher intentions towards entrepreneurship career as opposed to those that have not taken any course in entrepreneurship education. Franke and Luthje (2004) submit that lack of entrepreneurial education leads to low level of entrepreneurial intentions of students. On the contrary, Fayolle, Gailly, and Lassas-Clerc (2005) did not find support for their hypothesis that entrepreneurship teaching programs have a positive impact on entrepreneurial intentions. Nevertheless, they found positive impact on attitudes towards entrepreneurial behavior and perceived behavioral control. The findings from Table 1.2 further indicate that personal attitude and perceived behavioral control for target group students recorded higher mean values of and respectively, compared to and for the control group students. These results concur with those of Vij and Ball, (2010); Wilson et al. (2007) who reported that exposure to entrepreneurship education had positive impact on perceived behavioral control. Soutaris et al. (2007) confirm a positive impact of entrepreneurship education or programs at universities on perceived attractiveness and perceived feasibility of a new venture initiation. The higher means (5.0259) in personal attitude for the target group as compared to (3.0036) for the control group students suggest that entrepreneurship education has positive influence on personal attitude towards entrepreneurship. These results concur with those of Basu and Virick (2010) who emphasized in their study that those students who had prior entrepreneurship education had a positive attitude towards a career in entrepreneurship compared to those who did not have prior exposure to such programs. The mean value for subjective norms for the target group is while that of the control group is (see Table 1.2). These findings show that entrepreneurship education has a positive influence on subjective norms. International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 139

9 Entrepreneurship Education N Mean Std Error Mean Std Deviation Personal TG Attitude CG Subjective TG Norms CG Perceived TG Behavioral CG Control Entrepreneurial control TG CG Table 1.2: Means and Standard Deviations of the TPB Components: Have entrepreneurship TG versus Do not have entrepreneurship CG The t-test analysis for Moi University sample (Table 1.3) shows that there is a significant difference in all the variables (entrepreneurial intentions, personal attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control) between students who had entrepreneurship education and those who did not have. These findings show that entrepreneurship education has a positive significant influence on entrepreneurial intentions, perceived behavioral control, personal attitude and subjective norms of Moi University students. Therefore, the hypotheses H1, H2, H3 and H4 are supported by the findings. International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 140

10 Lavene s Test for Equality of Variances t-test for equality of means EI Equal variances assumed F Sig T df Sig(2- tailed Mean Difference Std. Error Difference Equal variances not assumed PA Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed PBC Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed SN Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed Table 1.3: Independent samples t- test of the TPB components: Have entrepreneurship (Target Group) versus Do not have entrepreneurship (Control Group) 6. Regression Analysis of the Variables: To examine the contribution of the antecedents of intention in the Theory of Planned Behavior (TBP) model, a regression model was fitted with personal attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control entered in that order for Moi University target group students. The R square value in Table 1.3 indicates that 41.7 percent of the variance in Entrepreneurial Intentions (EI) is explained by the contributions of Personal Attitude (PA), Subjective Norms (SN), and Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC). The adjusted squared was (p<0.05). These indicate that close to half of the variation in entrepreneurial intentions International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 141

11 could be explained by the three predictors together in the model implying that the Theory of Planned Behavior can be generally applied to study entrepreneurial intentions in the Kenyan context. According to Linan and Chen (2007), this result is satisfactory, since most previous research using linear models typically explains less than 40 percent. Further, all the three variables (PA, SN, and PBC) are positively associated with the dependent variable at 0.05 level of statistical significance (see table1.3). Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC) with a value of 36.8 percent explain the most variance in intention towards entrepreneurship (EI), while Personal Attitude (PA) explains 34.2 percent variance in entrepreneurial intentions and Subjective Norms (SN) which record 25.6 percent explain the least variance in entrepreneurial intentions. These results show that there is statistically a significant relationship between PA, SN, PBC and EI. From the findings, it can be adduced that Entrepreneurship education influences entrepreneurial intentions of students through the three antecedents. Model Un- standardized Coefficient Standardized Coefficient Beta Standard Era Beta T-test Significance Constant Personal Attitude Subjective Norms Perceived Behavioral Control Table 1.4: Regression Coefficient for Moi University Target Group Students Predictors: (Constant) Perceived Behavioral Control, Subjective Norms, Personal Attitude Dependent Variable: Entrepreneurial Intentions Model R R Square Adjusted Std Error R Square F Change R Square of the Change Estimate Table 1.5: Regression Model Summaries for Moi University Target Group 7. Conclusions and Recommendations: The study concludes that entrepreneurship education influences entrepreneurial intentions through the antecedent variables: personal attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. The target group students from Moi University recorded higher values for International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 142

12 the differences between the means in these variables than the control group students. This infers that exposure to entrepreneurship education is likely to exert a higher influence on entrepreneurial intentions of university students. The implication of the findings is that the teaching of entrepreneurship education to university students has a positive bearing in boosting their intentions towards business venture. The positive attitude and perceived behavioral control acquired from exposure to entrepreneurship education programs may enable them to consider pursuing business venture as an alternative career after completing their studies or in their latter years. From the regression analysis it has been demonstrated that these variables each contribute to the variance in entrepreneurship intention, where perceived behavioral control and personal attitude contribute the most to the variance in the entrepreneurial intentions whereas subjective norm is the least contributor to the intentions toward entrepreneurship. Their total contribution to the variance in entrepreneurial intentions is 41.7 percent as observed in the R value, confirming the Theory of Planned Behavior as a good fit model for the study of entrepreneurial intentions. The findings from the study indicated that perceived behavioral control had the highest influence on entrepreneurial intentions. Therefore, university entrepreneurship education and training programs should focus much more on changing perceived behavior control and personal attitude of the students because their effects could be more significant to the process of business creation and to overcome the perceived barriers to entrepreneurship. The Kenya s education system needs to be oriented to emphasize and value entrepreneurship in order to promote an enterprise culture among the students. Based on the findings, we recommend that universities should expose all the students to more entrepreneurship courses. This will promote the students choice of entrepreneurship as an alternative career. Not all these students will venture into business. Never the less, entrepreneurial skills acquired may still be useful, because as employees they would practice intra-preneurship (internal entrepreneurs). In the current competitive environment, many organizations are looking for innovative employees and one way of replying to this need is to expose university students to entrepreneurship education and training. The major limitation to this study is that intentions may not necessarily lead to entrepreneurial activity (venture creation). The researchers recommend that longitudinal International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 143

13 studies be carried out to determine whether entrepreneurial intentions among the university students translate to the actual behavior of initiating business start-ups. International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 144

14 References: 1. Ajzen, I. (1991) The theory of planned behaviour. Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Process, 50 (2), Ajzen, I, & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behaviors. Englewood Cliffs, N J: Prentice-Hall. 3. Ajzen, I. (2001). Nature and operation of attitudes". Annual Review of Psychology, (52), Ajzen, I. (2002). Perceived behavioural control, self-efficacy, locus of control, and the theory of planned behaviour. Journal of Applied Psychology, 32 (4), Athayde, R. (2009). Measuring enterprise potential in young people. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33(2), Anderson, R. and Robertson, M. (2000), Who wants to be an entrepreneur? Young adults attitudes to entrepreneurship career. Career Development International, 5 (6), Basu, A. and Virick, M. (2008). Asssessing Entrepreneurial Intentions Amongst Students: A comparative study. Retrived April 5, 2010 from 8. Bwisa, H. (2004). The Kenyan Experience in Business Incubators. Paper presented at Kenya country business incubator workshop, Green Hills Hotel, Nyeri, 9 th -10 th Dec Co, M. J. And Mitchell, B. (2006). Entrepreneurship education in South Africa: A nationwide survey. Education + Training 48(5): Collins, L., Hannon, P., Smith, A. (2004). Enacting entrepreneurial intent: the gaps between students needs and higher education capability. Education and Training, 46 (8/9), Fayolle, A., Gailly, B., and Lassas-Clerc, N. (2006). Assessing the impact of entrepreneurship education programmes: a new methodology. Journal of European Industrial Training, 30 (9), Frank, H., Korunka, C., Lueger, M. and Mugler, J. (2005). Entrepreneurial orientation and education in Australian secondary schools. Status quo and recommendations. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 12(2), International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 145

15 13. Hynes, B. and Richardson, I. (2007). Entrepreneurship education. Education and Training, 49, Ibrahim, O. A., Ooi, Y. K., and Habshah, B. (2009). Impact of entrepreneurship education on the intention toward entrpreneurship: A comparison study among Libyan students in Malaysia and Libya. Colege of Business, University Utara Malaysia. Retrived on from %200oi%20Yee%20keat%20Full%paper.pdf 15. Kabongo, J. & Okpara, J. (2010). Expert Barriers and Internationalization. International Journal of Business and Globalization 5(2). 16. Kickul, J., Wilson, F. Marlino, D. and Barbosa, S. (2008). Are misalignments of perceptions andself-efficacy causing gender gaps in entrepreneurial intentions among our nation s teens? Journal of Small Businees and Enterprise Development, 15 (2), Kolvereid, L., and Isaksen, E. (2006). New business start-up and subsequent entry into self-employment. Journal of Business Venturing, 21, Krueger, N.F.,Reilly, M. D., and Carsrud, A. L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 15 (5/6), Lepoutre, J., Berghe, W. V., Crijns, H., Tilleuil, O. (2010). A new approach to testing the effects of entrepreneurship education among secondary school pupils. Vlerick Working Paper Series 2010/01, Vlerick Leuven Gent Management School. 20. Linan, F.,and Chen, Y. (2006). Testing the entrepreneurial model on a two country sample. Working Paper 2006/07, Department of Business Economics, University Autonoma de Barcelona, Barcelona. 21. Linan, F., and Chen, W. Y. (2009). Development and cross-cultural application of a specific instrument to measure entrepreneurial intentions. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 33 (3), Matlay, H. (2006). Researching entrepreneurship education. Education + Training, 48 (8/9), Nabi, G. and Holden, R. (2008). Graduate entrepreneurship: intentions, education and training. Education + Training, 50 (7), International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 146

16 24. Oruoch, D., and Muchiri, R. (2007). The factors that facilitate entrepreneurial intentions among the youth and nascent entrepreneurs in Kenya. The International Journal of Knowledge, Culture and Change Management, 7 (5), Reynolds, P. D. (2005). Understanding business creation: Serendipity and scope in two decades of business creation studies. Small Business Economics, 24, Robertson, M. and Wilkson, D. (2005). Students Intention Survey , Centre for Graduate Entrepreneurship, in Yorkshire Leeds. 27. Rotefoss, B., and Kolvereid, L. (2005). Aspiring a nascent and fledgling entrepreneurs: An investigation of business start-up process. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 17, Souitaris, V., Zerbinati, S., A-l-Laham, A. (2007). Do entrepreneurship programmes raise entrepreneurial intention of science? The effect of learning, inspiring and resources. Journal of Busines Venturing, 22 (4), Turker, D. and Selcuk, S. S. (2009). Which factors affect entrepreneurial intentions of university students? Journal of European Industrial Training, 33 (2), Veciana, J. M., Aponte, M., Urbano, D. (2005). University students attitudes towards entrepreneurship: a two countries comparison". International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 1, Vij, V., and Ball, S. (2010). Exploring the impact of entrepreneurship education on university nonbusiness undergraduates. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, Vol. 9 No. 1 pp Retrieved on 15 th July, 2010 from =iss 32. Vij, V., and Ball, S. (2010). Exploring the impact of entrepreneurship education on university non-business undergraduates. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, Vol. 9 No. 1 pp Retrieved on 15 th July, 2010 from =iss International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 147

17 33. Wilson, F., Kickul, J. and Marlino, D. (2007. Gender, entrepreneurial self-efficacy, and entrepreneurial career intentions: Implications of entrepreneurship. Theory and Practice, 31 (3), Wu, S. and Wu, L. (2008). The impact of higher education on entrepreneurial intentions of university students in China. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, 15 (4), Fitzsimmons, J. R., and Douglas, E. J. (2005). Entrepreneurial attitudes and entrepreneurial intentions: A Cross-Cultural Study of Potential Entrepreneurs in India, China, Thailand and Australia. Babson-Kauffman Entrepreneurial Research Conference, Wellesley, MA. June International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies Page 148