Gaps between ethnic groups: some key statistics

Transcription

1 Gaps between ethnic groups: some key statistics 2000/9 1 June 2000 Executive summary Relative to the European/Pākehā population, the Māori and Pacific Island population have lower incomes, higher rates of unemployment, poorer educational and health outcomes, a greater likelihood of living in rental accommodation, and proportionately more convictions for criminal offences. The proportion of Māori, Pacific Island, and Asian people in the New Zealand population is increasing. These populations also have a younger age structure which has implications for age-related socio-economic indicators such as employment, income, home ownership, and crime. Te Puni Kōkiri is coordinating the monitoring of socio-economic indicators to determine whether the gaps between Māori and non-māori are closing, and will next report to the Government by the end of this fiscal year. Variable quality and ad-hoc reporting of the relevant statistics in the past has limited the ability of Te Puni Kōkiri to chart some of the trends accurately. Introduction Defining ethnicity The socio-economic disparities which exist between the European/Pākehā majority and minority ethnic groups have implications for social equity and general community well-being. The disparities between Māori and non-māori are also within a context of the status of Māori as indigenous people, the history of land and other resource alienation from Māori during colonisation and development, and the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. Published statistics by ethnicity most often compare Māori and non-māori populations, with fewer indicators disaggregated for other ethnic groups. Recent New Zealand censuses have requested respondents to identify their ethnicity by whichever ethnic group or groups they feel they belong to. In the 1996 census 81% of respondents identified themselves with one ethnic group, 11% with two, and 4% with three or more ethnic groups (the rest did not clearly select a group). 1 In assigning a single ethnicity for statistical purposes to those selecting multiple ethnicities, Statistics New Zealand employs a hierarchy of (1) Māori (all those selecting Māori are classed as Māori regardless of the any other ethnicities chosen), (2) Pacific Island (3) Asian, and (4) European. For the household surveys, ethnicity is derived by the same method via the ethnic group(s) of the householder. 2 1 Statistics New Zealand 1997 Māori, p. 188 and Ethnic Groups pp ,Table 1c. 2 Statistics New Zealand 1998, p. 69; Te Puni Kōkiri 1998b, p. 9. A person will therefore not be classed as European if they have also claimed Māori, Pacific Island, or Asian ethnicity, and the Pacific Island group excludes any people with both (continues next page)

2 Education, Police, Justice, and health system statistics which have in the past involved some identification of ethnicity by third parties based on appearance or name, have potentially incurred errors of misrepresentation. There are also differences in the wording of ethnicity questions and whether respondents can select multiple ethnicities. In addition, some earlier statistics were based on degree of Māori or Pacific Island blood rather than ethnic identification. 3 Official methods of defining ethnicity are increasingly being brought into line with the method used by Statistics New Zealand for the national census. Population size and age structure From the 1986 census to the 1996 census, the proportion of the population identified as European 4 decreased and the proportions identified as Māori, Pacific Island, and Asian increased (Table 1; see also Appendix A). This trend is projected to continue (Table 2). Table 1: Change of ethnic group composition in the New Zealand resident population, 1986 and Ethnic group 1986 census 1996 census % change European 81.2% 71.7% % Māori 12.4% 14.5% % Pacific Island 3.7% 4.8% % Asian 1.5% 4.4% % Other /unspec. 1.2% 4.6% Source: Statistics New Zealand 1997, 1996 Census of Population and Dwellings, Ethnic Groups, p. 15 and Table 1a. Other and not specified groupings combined. Table 2: Projections of New Zealand resident population by ethnicity, 2006 and Ethnic group European + other 70.3% 67.0% Māori 15.8% 16.7% Pacific Island 6.8% 7.8% Asian 7.1% 8.5% Source: Statistics New Zealand 1999, Demographic Trends 1998, Tables 8.1, 8.3 to 8.5. Medium projection (series 5). The faster growth rate of the Māori and Pacific Island populations is attributed by Statistics New Zealand to three main factors; higher fertility rates, a young population (more women in the main reproductive ages), and children being defined as belonging to these groups when the father is Māori or Pacific Island but the mother is from another ethnic group. The fast growth rate in the Asian population is attributed primarily to immigration (three-quarters of Asian New Zealanders in the 1996 census were born overseas), as well as a young population. The Māori, Pacific Island, and Asian populations are younger than the European population (see median age data in Appendix A). This has implications for agerelated indicators such as employment and income, home ownership, and crime. Pacific Island and Māori ethnicity, who will have been classed as Māori. Māori households may include non-māori members, and non- Māori households may include Māori members. 3 Ministry of Education 1999, Education Statistics for New Zealand for 1998, pp ; Statistics New Zealand 1996, New Zealand Now: Crime, p. 32; Pool 1991, Te Iwi Māori, pp ; Te Puni Kōkiri 1998a, p. 21; Health Funding Authority 2000, Improving Our Health, p. 18; Ministry of Justice 1999, Conviction and Sentencing of Offenders in New Zealand, pp. 1-2; Mako 1991, A Directory of Māori Statistics pp. 2-3; Statistics New Zealand 1999, Mortality and Demographic Data 1966, pp The summary term European is used, as this is the term used by Statistics New Zealand in the original source documents. In the 1996 census form, one ethnicity option was New Zealand European or Pākehā. Other European options specified in the form were English, Dutch, Australian, Scottish, Irish, and Other (please specify). 2

3 Education Participation in early childhood education In the 1980s and 1990s there was some reduction in the disparities between Māori and non-māori in measures of participation and achievement in the education system. However, these are against a backdrop of historically low levels, increasing population, and improvements in other groups, and in comparison significant gaps still remain. 5 The recently released mathematics and science achievement results suggest some small improvements for Māori and Asian students in science since 1994, but European and Asian students scores remain well ahead of those for Māori and Pacific Island students. 6 An enriched early education is recognised as a crucial foundation to enable children to maximise their potential. The proportion of preschool enrolments is lower for Māori and Pacific Island children than the proportion of eligible children in the population and higher for European/Pākehā children (Figure 2). Māori participation rates for preschool education increased in the 1990s, but as the non-māori participation rate increased even more, the disparity between Māori and non-māori almost doubled (e.g. a 12% difference in participation in 1991, compared to 23% in 1997). 7 Figure 2: Proportion of apparent enrolments in preschool education by ethnicity, compared to the ethnic population of preschool age, 1998 % total preschool enrollments (1998) % total children aged 0-4 (1996) percent European/ Pakeha Maori Pacific Island Asian Other Sources: Ministry of Education 1999, Education Statistics of New Zealand for 1998, Tables 9 11; Statistics New Zealand SUPERMAP database, 1996 census data. Note that the data years differ; the published age group population estimates for 1998 were not broken down by ethnicity. This is apparent enrolment, as any children enroled in more than one preschool service in a year will be counted for each enrolment (this is estimated to be a small and largely European/Pakeha group). Enrolments in Māori language preschools (kōhanga reo) increased rapidly in the ten years after their establishment in 1982, and have since levelled off. In 1998 kōhanga reo served 40% of Māori children in preschool education. Pacific Island language groups are under development, and in 1998 served 34% of the Pacific Island children in preschool education. 8 In April 2000, the Minister of Pacific Island Affairs announced that nine new Pacific Island early childhood centres would be funded. 9 Qualifications of school leavers School leavers of Māori and Pacific Island ethnicity are more likely to not have gained any formal qualifications and less likely to have gained university entrance qualifications than the general school population, and the opposite is true for Asian students (Figure 3). This has implications for their future employment and income, and consequently housing and health. 5 Te Puni Kōkiri, 1998a, p. 10; Te Puni Kōkiri, 1999, p Ministry of Education 2000, Third International Mathematics and Science Study Repeat (TIMSS-R), Preliminary Achievement Results, announced 1 June 2000, on 7 Te Puni Kōkiri, 1998a, Table 3, p Ministry of Education 1999, Education Statistics of New Zealand for 1998, Table 10. The forthcoming Parliamentary Library Background Note on Māori language education will include data on trends in kōhanga reo attendance. 3

4 Over the last decade, there have been significant increases in the number of children enrolled in kura kaupapa Māori (schools based on Māori philosophy and language) and schools with bilingual options. Over the period, there was a 74% increase in numbers of kura kaupapa Māori and a 130% Figure 3: Qualifications of school leavers by ethnicity, % of ethnic group 100% number of students 75% 50% 25% 0% No formal qualification 8,829 3, School certificate 8,217 2, th form or higher school certificate 18,451 2,918 1,500 1,125 University bursary or entrance qualifications All Maori Pacific Island Asian 14, ,037 Source: Ministry of Education 1999, Education Statistics of New Zealand for 1998, Table 52. Separate data for European/Pākehā was not provided in this source. increase in bilingual schools. A 1995 survey of Māori parents demand for the preferred type of education for their children found that Māori medium education was undersupplied by 40%. 10 In 1998, 14.5% of all Māori students were studying in Māori medium education (attending kura kaupapa Māori or bilingual schools). 11 Suspensions and expulsions Participation in tertiary education Employment and income Participation in the workforce In the 1990s Māori were over-represented in the number of suspensions and expulsions from school. In 1997, Māori comprised 19.8% of all students but experienced 41.7% of all suspensions and expulsions. From 1992 to 1997 the number of suspensions and expulsions of Māori students increased by 182%, compared to a 97% increase for non-māori students, and an overall increase of 125%. 12 Between 1990 and 1997, the number of Māori tertiary education graduates increased by 363% (from 409 to 1,896). However, Māori are primarily enrolled in polytechnics and Training Opportunity Programmes, while non-māori are more likely to be enrolled in universities and polytechnics. In 1997 Māori comprised 12.7% of all tertiary graduates, and received 20.6% of all certificates, 15.3% of diplomas, 9.3% of undergraduate degrees, 6.2% of post-graduate awards, and 2.0% of doctorates. 13 During the late 1980s to early 1990s Māori unemployment nearly tripled, from 9.5% in late 1987 to 27.3% in early Major contributing factors were economic restructuring in the late 1980s and the recession of 1988 to The disparity improved slightly in the early to mid 1990s, but in 1997 and 1998 Māori unemployment worsened. There have been improvements in selfemployment and household income for Māori, but the improvements in these areas for non-māori have been larger Government press release 27/4/00, Closing the Gaps Pacific Early Childhood Education. 10 MRL Research Group 1995, Maori and Pacific Island Language Demand for Educational Services. 11 Ministry of Education 2000, pp Te Puni Kōkiri, 1998a, Table 4, p.10. Updated data will be in the forthcoming Closing the Gaps report. 13 Te Puni Kōkiri 1999, pp ; Ministry of Education 2000, pp In comparison, Māori comprised approximately 14.5% of the population (Table 1). 14 Te Puni Kōkiri 1998a, pp.14-18; Te Puni Kōkiri 1999, p

5 The labour force participation rate (the proportion of the working age population which is either in employment or looking for employment) is fairly similar for European, Māori and Pacific Island ethnic groups. However, the unemployment rate (the proportion of the labour force which is unemployed) is about three times higher for Māori and Pacific Island people than for Europeans (Figure 4). Figure 4: Employment and unemployment by ethnicity, year ended March percent European Maori Pacific Island Other Labour force participation rate Unemployment rate Source: Statistics New Zealand 2000, Household Labour Force Survey: Customised Tables, Ethnic Statistics (prepared for Parliamentary Library) for June 1999, September 1999, December 1999 and March 2000 quarters. The highest unemployment rates are among youth aged 15 to 19, where the differential among the ethnic groups is similarly pronounced: European 13.4% compared to Māori 28.7% and Pacific Island 31.7% (year ended March 2000). Employment type Personal and household income People from European and Asian groups are more likely to work in professional and white collar occupations while people from Māori and Pacific Island groups are more likely to work in blue collar and unskilled occupations such as trade workers and plant and machine operators and assemblers. Vietnamese and Cambodians are an exception to this generalisation, being more likely to have blue collar and unskilled jobs. Data from the 1996 census shows the median personal income of Māori and Pacific Island people aged 15 and above was well below the national average of $15,600 ($12,864 and $12,422 respectively). The ethnic groups with median personal income significantly above the national average were New Zealand Europeans/ Pākehā, British/Irish, Australians, and Italians (Appendix A). The average income of Māori and Pacific Island households is below that of European households, and a much larger proportion of their income comes from social welfare benefits (Figure 5). The greater proportion of Māori reliant on Government benefits as their main source of personal income (36.3% compared to 14.3% for non-māori households in the 1996 census) is likely to be reflecting increases in Māori one parent families and high Māori unemployment. 15 The ethnicity assigned to households by Statistics New Zealand is derived from the ethnicity chosen by the householder (the person who fills out the survey on behalf of the household) not the ethnicity of the other household members. Rather than rely on this data, Te Puni Kōkiri prefers to measure the total number of households in certain income brackets and the number of Māori in households of those brackets. Using this approach, the non-māori average annual household income was $5,500 more for non-māori than for Māori in 1987, and $10,000 more in Te Puni Kōkiri 1998a, p Te Puni Kōkiri 1998b, p. 9, and pers.comm. 5/

6 Figure 5: Average weekly income of households by ethnicity of householder and source of income, 1997/98 $1, average weekly household income $ $- Wages or salaries $ $ $ $ Self-employment $ $29.70 $4.70 $68.70 NZ Superannuation $72.70 $40.40 $18.00 $14.10 Social Welfare Benefits European /Pakeha Maori Pacific Island Other $47.30 $ $ $75.30 Other $94.70 $52.60 $17.00 $79.80 TOTAL $ $ $ $ Source: Statistics New Zealand 1998, Household Economic Survey Standard Tables 1997/98, Table 27. Housing tenure Māori and Pacific Island households are two to three times more likely to be in rental rather than owner-occupied accommodation, compared to European/Pākehā households. The proportion paying mortgages is fairly similar for each of the major ethnic groups, but European/Pākehā households are much more likely to own their homes mortgage-free (Figure 6). This may largely be a result of the higher income levels and the older age structure of that population. Figure 6: Tenure of households by ethnic group of head of household, 1997/ % paying rent % paying mortgage % owned mortgage-free % rental-free European /Pakeha Maori Pacific Island Other 6 Source: Statistics New Zealand 1998, Household Economic Survey Standard Tables 1997/98. 6

7 Health From World War II to the 1990s, there has been a steady decline in infant mortality and improvements in life expectancy for Māori. However, Māori continue to lag behind non-māori in the almost all health indicators including rates of cot death (SIDS), glue ear, teenage pregnancy, youth suicide, self injury, diabetes, stroke, pneumonia, influenza, and mental health. 17 Life expectancy There was an 18 to 23 year gap between Māori and non-māori life expectancies in 1946, which had closed to a five to six year gap by The main reason for the improvement in Māori life expectancy was the improvement in the infant mortality rate, but in 1999 infant mortality for Māori was still nearly double that for non-māori (8.12 vs per 1,000). 19 The ethnicity question on the death registration form was changed in 1995 to improve consistency with the census, and the new life expectancy data is not comparable to earlier data. 20 The most recent published life expectancy data shows gaps remaining between average life expectancy for the Māori and Pacific Island populations and for the total New Zealand population (Table 3). Table 3: Life expectancy in years at birth, by ethnicity, Total Maori Pacific Island female male Source: Statistics New Zealand 2000, Demographic Trends 1999,Table 5, p. 25. Causes of death Death rates in 1996 were higher for Māori than for non-māori for all major causes of death (Figure 7). Figure 7: Rates for the major causes of death, Māori and non-māori, Cancer Ischaemic heart disease Cerebrovascular disease Chronic obstructive respiratory disease Other forms of heart disease Pneumonia, influenza non-maori Maori Motor vehicle crashes Suicide Diabetes mellitus deaths per 100,000 (age standardised) Source: Ministry of Health 1999, Mortality and Demographic Data 1996, Table 2. Separate death rates per 100,000 data not published for other ethnic groups. Analysis of data for Pacific Island people found, after correcting for an estimated 57% of under-reporting for that ethnicity, that rates of death for leading causes were lower than national averages, but rates of diabetes and asthma were much higher (Public Health Commission 1994, The Health of Pacific Islands People in new Zealand, pp Te Puni Kōkiri 1998a, pp. 7, Pool 1991, Te Iwi Maori: A New Zealand Population Past, Present and Future, Table 7.6a, p.145 (data for 1946 to 1966); Te Puni Kōkiri 1998a, Table 13, p. 21 (data for to ). 19 Statistics New Zealand 2000, Key Statistics April 2000, Table Non-Māori figure calculated from this data. 20 Statistics New Zealand 1999, Mortality and Demographic Data 1966, pp

8 Smoking Māori have the highest smoking rate of all ethnic groups followed by Pacific Island people (Figure 8), and are the only ethnic group in New Zealand in which women are more likely to smoke than men (47% vs. 40%). This has implications for rates of cancer, lung disease, and heart disease. Figure 8: Percentage of major ethnic groups who were current or exsmokers, percent % regular smokers % ex-smokers European/ Pakeha Maori Pacific Island Asian Source: Statistics New Zealand 1997, 1996 Census of Population and Dwellings, Ethnic Groups Table 16a, and Pacific Island People Table 128. Percentages derived using totals, less unidentifiable and not specified (the graph shows the percent among those in each ethnic group who clearly responded to the census question). Obesity and diabetes Maori also have higher rates of the health risk factors obesity and diabetes, but are not quite as prone to physical inactivity as are non-maori (Figure 9). Figure 9: Prevalence of the health risk factors obesity, physical inactivity, and diabetes, by ethnicity. percent Maori non- Maori obesity physical inactivity diabetes Source: Maori Health Branch Ministry of Health 2000, The State of Maori Health, Key Facts from Our Health Our Future, p.4. Potential remedies To more effectively target resources to the improvement of Māori health, the Government has encouraged a substantial increase in the number of Māori health providers over the last five years. The number of Māori providers contracted by the then Regional Health Authorities and the Transitional Health Authority increased from under 20 in 1993 to over 220 in However, it is also recognised that health status is linked to socio-economic status, and improvements in Māori and Pacific Island health also depend on social, cultural and economic advancement Te Puni Kōkiri 1999, p Maori Health Branch Ministry of Health 2000, p. 2. 8

9 Crime In 1998 the rates of conviction for criminal offences for Māori were nearly three times their proportion in the general population, and Māori received more than half of all custodial and periodic detention sentences. Māori and Pacific Island people were over-represented in convictions for violent offences, and European/Pākehā people were more likely to be convicted of drug offences or be given monetary sentences (Figure 10). Māori and Pacific Island people are more likely to be victims of violent crime than are European/Pākehā people, and Pacific Island people have particularly high victimisation rates by people well known to the victim. 23 Factors considered to influence higher rates of offending are unemployment, low incomes, residence in deprived urban areas, and lower educational attainment. 24 As the highest rates of offending are generally among young people 25, the younger age structure of the Māori and Pacific Island populations is also a factor. Figure 10: Convictions for criminal offences by ethnicity 1999 (all cases other than traffic convictions), compared to ethnic composition of the population percent 25 0 % 1996 population % of cases resulting in conviction % of violent offences % of property offences % of drug offences % of custodial sentences % of periodic detention % of monetary sentences European Maori Pacific Island Sources: Ministry of Justice 1999, Conviction and Sentencing of Offenders in New Zealand: , pp. 23, 37; Ministry of Justice 2000, Responses to Crime: Annual Review 1999, Table 7.3; this Background Note, Table 1. The percentages total by row to 100% minus percent for Other ethnicity. Māori also received 72% of community programme sentences, but as this type of sentence was only 0.5% of all sentences imposed in 1998 it was not included in the graph. 23 Ministry of Justice 2000, sections 7.2.4, and to Statistics New Zealand 1996, New Zealand Now: Crime, pp Ministry of Justice 1999, Conviction and Sentencing of Offenders in New Zealand: , Table 2.15; for cases in 1998 resulting in conviction (other than traffic offences), 64% of the offenders were aged 17 to 29. 9

10 Closing the Gaps : monitoring and reporting The 1998 Te Puni Kōkiri Closing the Gaps report concluded that the available statistical evidence does not provide assurance that the economic and social gaps between Māori and non-māori are closing. 26 Due to the variable quality and ad-hoc reporting of the relevant statistics in the past, it could be difficult to determine with certainty whether the many health, education, employment and income disparities are improving or getting worse. In late February 2000, the Government announced that chief executives would be required to explicitly demonstrate how they have acted on Government s policy objectives for improving outcomes for Māori. Whether their salary bonuses would be withheld if they did not meet negotiated targets, as reported by the media at the time, has not been established and would involve the State Services Commission as the employer of chief executives. Departments will also be required to cooperate with Te Puni Kōkiri in collecting relevant expenditure and outcome data, report annually on the effectiveness of programmes for Māori people, and manage appropriate initiatives within existing budgets. Progress would be overseen by a special Closing the Gaps Cabinet Committee of senior and Māori Affairs portfolio Ministers, chaired by the Prime Minister. 27 Te Puni Kōkiri is currently working with government agencies to establish reporting and monitoring agreements and collate data. The next closing the gaps report is expected to be delivered by officials to the Ministerial Closing the Gaps Committee by the end of the 1999/2000 financial year. It has been announced that the audit report will be made public. References Māori Health Branch, 2000, The State of Māori Health: Key Facts from Our Health Our Future - Hauora Pakari, Koiora Roa: The Health of New Zealanders 1999, Ministry of Health, Wellington. (also available on Ministry of Education, 2000, Ngā Haeata Mātauranga: Annual Report on Māori Education 1998/00 and Direction for 2000, Ministry of Education, Wellington. Ministry of Justice, 2000, Responses to Crime: Annual Review 1999, Ministry of Justice, Wellington. (also available on Statistics New Zealand, 1997, 1996 Census of Population and Dwellings, individual reports Ethnic Groups, Māori, and Pacific Islands People, Statistics New Zealand, Wellington. Statistics New Zealand, 1998, 1997/98 Household Economic Survey: Standard Tables, Statistics New Zealand, Wellington. Te Puni Kōkiri, 1998a, Progress Towards Closing Social and Economic Gaps Between Māori and non- Māori: a Report to the Minister of Māori Affairs, Te Puni Kōkiri, Wellington. Te Puni Kōkiri, 1998b, Māori Towards 2000, Whakapakari: Tatauranga Taupori, No , Te Puni Kōkiri, Wellington. Te Puni Kōkiri, 1999, Māori in the New Zealand Economy, Te Puni Kōkiri, Wellington. Dana Rachelle Peterson, Research Officer and David Williams, Statistician Parliamentary Library for more information contact Dana ext 9358 Copyright NZ Parliamentary Library Except for educational purposes permitted under the Copyright Act 1994, no part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, including information storage and retrieval systems, other than by Members of Parliament in the course of their official duties, without the consent of the Parliamentary Librarian, Parliament Buildings, Wellington, New Zealand. 26 Te Puni Kōkiri 1998a, p The Dominion 29 February 2000 Pay cuts for bosses who don t aid Maoris, The Press 2 March 2000 Bureaucrats on notice; pers.comm. P. McLean, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, 5/

11 Appendix A: New Zealand resident population data by ethnicity Proportion of population, median personal income, percent of labour force unemployed, and median age. % NZ resident population median age median personal income 1996 % labour force unemployed NZ European/Pākehā $17, British/Irish $16, Dutch $15, Australian $16, German $15, South Slav $13, Greek $15, Polish $14, Italian $16, Other European $16, European $16, NZ Maori $12, Samoan $12, Cook Island Maori $13, Tongan $9, Niuean $13, Fijian $14, Tokelauan $11, Other Pacific Island $10, Pacific Island $12, Vietnamese $8, Cambodian $9, Filipino $11, Other SE Asian $8, Indian $13, Chinese $7, Korean $3, Japanese $5, Sri Lankan $10, Other Asian $7, Asian Middle Eastern $9, African $10, Latin Am./Hispanic $11, Other $14, Not specified, available, or identifiable $13, Other Total New Zealand $15, = Data not provided in this form in the original sources. Sources: Statistics New Zealand 1997, 1996 Census of Population and Dwellings, Ethnic Groups Tables 1a, 2b, 13b, 23a; Demographic Trends 1999, p. 26 (median ages); SUPERMAP database (total unemployment rates, Pacific Island, Asian and Other).