Mathematical induction
|
|
- Rudolf Scott
- 7 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Mathematical induction If we want to prove that P n holds for for all natural numbers n, we can do the following twostep rocket called mathematical induction: 1. Prove that P 0 holds 2. Prove that if P n holds, then P n 1 holds. Ie prove n N: P n P n 1 Step 1 is called the base case, step 2 is called the inductive step. In step 2, the assumption that P n holds is called the inductive hypothesis. Example Prove that for all n N, n n 2 Base case: prove that is an even number. is an even number =0, which is obviously even. Inductive step: assuming that n n 2 is even, prove that n 1 n 1 2 is even. Since we know that n n 2 n 1 n 1 2 = n 1 n 2 2n 1 =n 2 n 2n 2 =2m 2n 2 =2 m n 1 is even, we define n n 2 =2m. This yields:...which is obviously an even number, since it's a multiple of two Johannes Åman Pohjola 1/6 Dept. of Information Technology
2 A slight generalization If we want to prove P n for all n n 0, we can use P n 0 rather than P n as the base case. Example n Show that for all n 12, i 3 n2 i=0 12 Base case: show that i i=0 12 i =0 i 3 = =39 36 = 122 n Inductive step: show that if i 3 n2 i=0 n 1 i=0 n = i =0 i 3 i 3 n 1 3 n2 n 2 = n2 n 8 n 2 = n2 2n 1 2n 9 = n2 2n 1 2n 9 = n 1 2 2n 9 n 1 2 n 1 and n 12, then i=0 i 3 n Johannes Åman Pohjola 2/6 Dept. of Information Technology
3 A larger generalization: structural induction The set N of natural numbers can be inductively defined as follows: 0 is in a natural number If n is a natural number, then n+1 is a natural number. Notice the similarity in structure between this style of definition and inductive proofs. It's no coincidence. Induction proofs exploit the property that the natural numbers are an inductivelydefined structure. However, the natural numbers is far from the only structure which can be defined as such: sky's the limit! Linked lists and binary trees are examples of well-known data structures that can be inductively defined (the definitions are left as an exercise for the reader). Clearly, if other structures can be inductively defined just as the natural numbers, then we should be able to prove properties about those structures with induction, like we do for the natural numbers. Example Simple arithmetic expressions, involving only parentheses and binary operators, can be inductively defined as follows: All numbers and variables are arithmetic expressions If A 1 and A 2 are arithmetic expressions, then so is A 1 A 2, A 1 A 2, A 1 A 2, and A 1 / A 2. If A is an arithmetic expression, then so is A. Numbers, variables, binary operators and parentheses are symbols. Let A denote the number of symbols in an arithmetic expression A, ie 1 x =3 and =7. Theorem: for all A, lline A rline is odd. We prove this by induction. Since there are several (as opposed to just one) inductive steps in the definition of our structure, the proof will follow the same structure. Base case(s): a number or variable has an odd number of symbols A variable or number is by definition a symbol: we have one symbol, and one is odd. Inductive step (i): if A 1 and A 2 are odd, then so is A 1 A 2. We let A 1 =2n 1 and A 2 =2m 1. Thus, we have: A 1 A 2 = A 1 A 2 1=2n 1 2m 1 1=2 m n 1 1 Inductive step (ii): if A 1 and A 2 are odd, then so is A 1 A 2. Proof analogous to (i). Inductive step (v): if A is odd, then so is A. Let A =2n 1. We have A =2 A =2 2n 1=2 n Johannes Åman Pohjola 3/6 Dept. of Information Technology
4 Cargo cult induction We wish to show that all horses have the same colour, or equivalently, that for every set of horses, all its members have the same colour. We use induction over the size of the horse sets. Base case: all horses in the empty set have the same colour. Vacuously true. Inductive step: if all horses in horse sets of size n have the same colour, then so do all horses in sets of size n+1. Let H ={h 1, h 2,, h n, h n 1 } denote any size n+1 set of horses. Now consider the sets H 1 ={h 2, h 3,,h n,h n 1 } and H 2 ={h 1, h 2,,h n 1,h n }. Since H 1 and H 2 each have n elements, then by the induction hypothesis, we know that all horses in H 1 and H 2 have the same colour. Since H 1 and H 2 overlaps, all horses in H must have the same colour. This completes our proof. However, spider-sense would indicate that something is not right here: the result we just obtained is widely held to be false. In fact, we can provide a counterexample: Figure 1.1: Counterexample Clearly, there is some error in our proof. Can you find it? 2009 Johannes Åman Pohjola /6 Dept. of Information Technology
5 Asymptotic notation: an example We wish to prove that 5n 2 3n 6= n 2. Unfolding the definition of -notation, our task is to find positive constants c 1, c 2 and n 0 such that for all n n 0 we have 0 c 1 n 2 5n 2 3n 6 c 2 n 2 (*) One general strategy is the following two-step rocket: Guess values of c 1, c 2 and n 0. You can arrive at your guesses with more or less sophistication: plot graphs, fiddle around algebraically or apply astrology according to taste. It doesn't matter, as long as you're convinced that your guess is correct. Prove that the values you guessed actually satisfy (*) - ie, prove 0 c 1 n 2, c 1 n 2 5n 2 3n 6 and 5n 2 3n 6 c 2 n 2 for all n n 0. Note that it doesn't matter which values you pick for the constants, as long as they satisfy the inequality. Your task is to show that such constants exists, not to find the best such constants. Hence, the best choice is the most convenient choice for you: when in doubt, go for the constants which simplify your proof the most. In this example, I use forbidden arcane magical lore to guess c 1 =1, c 2 =5 and n 0 =2. I then need to prove: 0 1 n 2 for all n 2 1 n 2 5n 2 3n 6 for all n 2 5n 2 3n 6 5 n 2 for all n 2 Proving the above inequalities is straightforward feel free to do it as an exercise Johannes Åman Pohjola 5/6 Dept. of Information Technology
6 Methods for solving recurrence equations Recursion trees Each node represents the cost of one subproblem, all the way down until the leafs, which represent the cost of the base cases. The sum of all node costs within a level gives the total cost of that level. The sum of all per-level costs gives the total cost. Substition Guess a solution. Verify the correctness of the solution using induction. Example: merge sort The following recurrence describes the runtime of merge sort, where n denotes the number of elements we are sorting. Constants and lower-order terms have been somewhat simplified: we want to illustrate an idea here, not do something incredibly hairy. T 1 =1 T n =2 T n 2 c n If you are at the tutorial session right now, you should be witnessing a nice recursion tree being drawn on the blackboard! Basically, since there are O lg n levels, with the cost of each level being O n, the cost of the entire tree is O n lg n! We can also show this with the substitution method. We begin by guessing that T n c n lg n n (which is what the recursion tree would indicate), and go with induction from there: Base case: T 1 c 1 lg 1 1 Simplifies to 1 1. Inductive hypothesis: if T n 2 c n 2 lg n 2 n 2, then T n c n lg n n T n =2 T n 2 c n 2 c n 2 lg n 2 n 2 c n 2 c n 2 lg n 2 n 2 c n =c n lg n 1 n c n =c n lg n n Notice how we use the fact that we're working with inequalities to our advantage. From here, it is trivial to show that T n =O n lg n Johannes Åman Pohjola 6/6 Dept. of Information Technology
Full and Complete Binary Trees
Full and Complete Binary Trees Binary Tree Theorems 1 Here are two important types of binary trees. Note that the definitions, while similar, are logically independent. Definition: a binary tree T is full
More informationIndiana State Core Curriculum Standards updated 2009 Algebra I
Indiana State Core Curriculum Standards updated 2009 Algebra I Strand Description Boardworks High School Algebra presentations Operations With Real Numbers Linear Equations and A1.1 Students simplify and
More informationIf n is odd, then 3n + 7 is even.
Proof: Proof: We suppose... that 3n + 7 is even. that 3n + 7 is even. Since n is odd, there exists an integer k so that n = 2k + 1. that 3n + 7 is even. Since n is odd, there exists an integer k so that
More informationBasic Proof Techniques
Basic Proof Techniques David Ferry dsf43@truman.edu September 13, 010 1 Four Fundamental Proof Techniques When one wishes to prove the statement P Q there are four fundamental approaches. This document
More information6.3 Conditional Probability and Independence
222 CHAPTER 6. PROBABILITY 6.3 Conditional Probability and Independence Conditional Probability Two cubical dice each have a triangle painted on one side, a circle painted on two sides and a square painted
More informationAn inequality for the group chromatic number of a graph
An inequality for the group chromatic number of a graph Hong-Jian Lai 1, Xiangwen Li 2 and Gexin Yu 3 1 Department of Mathematics, West Virginia University Morgantown, WV 26505 USA 2 Department of Mathematics
More informationA Little Set Theory (Never Hurt Anybody)
A Little Set Theory (Never Hurt Anybody) Matthew Saltzman Department of Mathematical Sciences Clemson University Draft: August 21, 2013 1 Introduction The fundamental ideas of set theory and the algebra
More informationMathematical Induction. Lecture 10-11
Mathematical Induction Lecture 10-11 Menu Mathematical Induction Strong Induction Recursive Definitions Structural Induction Climbing an Infinite Ladder Suppose we have an infinite ladder: 1. We can reach
More informationIntroduction. Appendix D Mathematical Induction D1
Appendix D Mathematical Induction D D Mathematical Induction Use mathematical induction to prove a formula. Find a sum of powers of integers. Find a formula for a finite sum. Use finite differences to
More informationMany algorithms, particularly divide and conquer algorithms, have time complexities which are naturally
Recurrence Relations Many algorithms, particularly divide and conquer algorithms, have time complexities which are naturally modeled by recurrence relations. A recurrence relation is an equation which
More information3. Mathematical Induction
3. MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION 83 3. Mathematical Induction 3.1. First Principle of Mathematical Induction. Let P (n) be a predicate with domain of discourse (over) the natural numbers N = {0, 1,,...}. If (1)
More informationSample Induction Proofs
Math 3 Worksheet: Induction Proofs III, Sample Proofs A.J. Hildebrand Sample Induction Proofs Below are model solutions to some of the practice problems on the induction worksheets. The solutions given
More informationSection IV.1: Recursive Algorithms and Recursion Trees
Section IV.1: Recursive Algorithms and Recursion Trees Definition IV.1.1: A recursive algorithm is an algorithm that solves a problem by (1) reducing it to an instance of the same problem with smaller
More informationMathematical Induction
Mathematical Induction (Handout March 8, 01) The Principle of Mathematical Induction provides a means to prove infinitely many statements all at once The principle is logical rather than strictly mathematical,
More informationMathematical Induction. Mary Barnes Sue Gordon
Mathematics Learning Centre Mathematical Induction Mary Barnes Sue Gordon c 1987 University of Sydney Contents 1 Mathematical Induction 1 1.1 Why do we need proof by induction?.... 1 1. What is proof by
More informationCS473 - Algorithms I
CS473 - Algorithms I Lecture 4 The Divide-and-Conquer Design Paradigm View in slide-show mode 1 Reminder: Merge Sort Input array A sort this half sort this half Divide Conquer merge two sorted halves Combine
More informationSolutions to In-Class Problems Week 4, Mon.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology 6.042J/18.062J, Fall 05: Mathematics for Computer Science September 26 Prof. Albert R. Meyer and Prof. Ronitt Rubinfeld revised September 26, 2005, 1050 minutes Solutions
More informationMathematical Induction
Mathematical Induction In logic, we often want to prove that every member of an infinite set has some feature. E.g., we would like to show: N 1 : is a number 1 : has the feature Φ ( x)(n 1 x! 1 x) How
More informationSECTION 10-2 Mathematical Induction
73 0 Sequences and Series 6. Approximate e 0. using the first five terms of the series. Compare this approximation with your calculator evaluation of e 0.. 6. Approximate e 0.5 using the first five terms
More information8 Divisibility and prime numbers
8 Divisibility and prime numbers 8.1 Divisibility In this short section we extend the concept of a multiple from the natural numbers to the integers. We also summarize several other terms that express
More informationAnalysis of Algorithms I: Optimal Binary Search Trees
Analysis of Algorithms I: Optimal Binary Search Trees Xi Chen Columbia University Given a set of n keys K = {k 1,..., k n } in sorted order: k 1 < k 2 < < k n we wish to build an optimal binary search
More informationLEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THIS CHAPTER
CHAPTER 2 American mathematician Paul Halmos (1916 2006), who in 1942 published the first modern linear algebra book. The title of Halmos s book was the same as the title of this chapter. Finite-Dimensional
More informationCHAPTER 7 GENERAL PROOF SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 7 GENERAL PROOF SYSTEMS 1 Introduction Proof systems are built to prove statements. They can be thought as an inference machine with special statements, called provable statements, or sometimes
More informationGraphs without proper subgraphs of minimum degree 3 and short cycles
Graphs without proper subgraphs of minimum degree 3 and short cycles Lothar Narins, Alexey Pokrovskiy, Tibor Szabó Department of Mathematics, Freie Universität, Berlin, Germany. August 22, 2014 Abstract
More informationMATHEMATICAL INDUCTION. Mathematical Induction. This is a powerful method to prove properties of positive integers.
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION MIGUEL A LERMA (Last updated: February 8, 003) Mathematical Induction This is a powerful method to prove properties of positive integers Principle of Mathematical Induction Let P
More informationDiscrete Mathematics and Probability Theory Fall 2009 Satish Rao, David Tse Note 2
CS 70 Discrete Mathematics and Probability Theory Fall 2009 Satish Rao, David Tse Note 2 Proofs Intuitively, the concept of proof should already be familiar We all like to assert things, and few of us
More informationAn inequality for the group chromatic number of a graph
Discrete Mathematics 307 (2007) 3076 3080 www.elsevier.com/locate/disc Note An inequality for the group chromatic number of a graph Hong-Jian Lai a, Xiangwen Li b,,1, Gexin Yu c a Department of Mathematics,
More informationMatrix Algebra. Some Basic Matrix Laws. Before reading the text or the following notes glance at the following list of basic matrix algebra laws.
Matrix Algebra A. Doerr Before reading the text or the following notes glance at the following list of basic matrix algebra laws. Some Basic Matrix Laws Assume the orders of the matrices are such that
More informationAlgebraic expressions are a combination of numbers and variables. Here are examples of some basic algebraic expressions.
Page 1 of 13 Review of Linear Expressions and Equations Skills involving linear equations can be divided into the following groups: Simplifying algebraic expressions. Linear expressions. Solving linear
More informationWHAT ARE MATHEMATICAL PROOFS AND WHY THEY ARE IMPORTANT?
WHAT ARE MATHEMATICAL PROOFS AND WHY THEY ARE IMPORTANT? introduction Many students seem to have trouble with the notion of a mathematical proof. People that come to a course like Math 216, who certainly
More informationWRITING PROOFS. Christopher Heil Georgia Institute of Technology
WRITING PROOFS Christopher Heil Georgia Institute of Technology A theorem is just a statement of fact A proof of the theorem is a logical explanation of why the theorem is true Many theorems have this
More informationAnswer Key for California State Standards: Algebra I
Algebra I: Symbolic reasoning and calculations with symbols are central in algebra. Through the study of algebra, a student develops an understanding of the symbolic language of mathematics and the sciences.
More informationGrade Level Year Total Points Core Points % At Standard 9 2003 10 5 7 %
Performance Assessment Task Number Towers Grade 9 The task challenges a student to demonstrate understanding of the concepts of algebraic properties and representations. A student must make sense of the
More informationCollatz Sequence. Fibbonacci Sequence. n is even; Recurrence Relation: a n+1 = a n + a n 1.
Fibonacci Roulette In this game you will be constructing a recurrence relation, that is, a sequence of numbers where you find the next number by looking at the previous numbers in the sequence. Your job
More informationReading 13 : Finite State Automata and Regular Expressions
CS/Math 24: Introduction to Discrete Mathematics Fall 25 Reading 3 : Finite State Automata and Regular Expressions Instructors: Beck Hasti, Gautam Prakriya In this reading we study a mathematical model
More informationThe program also provides supplemental modules on topics in geometry and probability and statistics.
Algebra 1 Course Overview Students develop algebraic fluency by learning the skills needed to solve equations and perform important manipulations with numbers, variables, equations, and inequalities. Students
More informationCreating, Solving, and Graphing Systems of Linear Equations and Linear Inequalities
Algebra 1, Quarter 2, Unit 2.1 Creating, Solving, and Graphing Systems of Linear Equations and Linear Inequalities Overview Number of instructional days: 15 (1 day = 45 60 minutes) Content to be learned
More informationMTH124: Honors Algebra I
MTH124: Honors Algebra I This course prepares students for more advanced courses while they develop algebraic fluency, learn the skills needed to solve equations, and perform manipulations with numbers,
More informationMethod To Solve Linear, Polynomial, or Absolute Value Inequalities:
Solving Inequalities An inequality is the result of replacing the = sign in an equation with ,, or. For example, 3x 2 < 7 is a linear inequality. We call it linear because if the < were replaced with
More information26 Integers: Multiplication, Division, and Order
26 Integers: Multiplication, Division, and Order Integer multiplication and division are extensions of whole number multiplication and division. In multiplying and dividing integers, the one new issue
More information9.2 Summation Notation
9. Summation Notation 66 9. Summation Notation In the previous section, we introduced sequences and now we shall present notation and theorems concerning the sum of terms of a sequence. We begin with a
More informationCartesian Products and Relations
Cartesian Products and Relations Definition (Cartesian product) If A and B are sets, the Cartesian product of A and B is the set A B = {(a, b) :(a A) and (b B)}. The following points are worth special
More informationNotes on Determinant
ENGG2012B Advanced Engineering Mathematics Notes on Determinant Lecturer: Kenneth Shum Lecture 9-18/02/2013 The determinant of a system of linear equations determines whether the solution is unique, without
More informationSolutions for Practice problems on proofs
Solutions for Practice problems on proofs Definition: (even) An integer n Z is even if and only if n = 2m for some number m Z. Definition: (odd) An integer n Z is odd if and only if n = 2m + 1 for some
More informationHOMEWORK 5 SOLUTIONS. n!f n (1) lim. ln x n! + xn x. 1 = G n 1 (x). (2) k + 1 n. (n 1)!
Math 7 Fall 205 HOMEWORK 5 SOLUTIONS Problem. 2008 B2 Let F 0 x = ln x. For n 0 and x > 0, let F n+ x = 0 F ntdt. Evaluate n!f n lim n ln n. By directly computing F n x for small n s, we obtain the following
More informationChapter 3. Cartesian Products and Relations. 3.1 Cartesian Products
Chapter 3 Cartesian Products and Relations The material in this chapter is the first real encounter with abstraction. Relations are very general thing they are a special type of subset. After introducing
More informationIntroduction to Algorithms March 10, 2004 Massachusetts Institute of Technology Professors Erik Demaine and Shafi Goldwasser Quiz 1.
Introduction to Algorithms March 10, 2004 Massachusetts Institute of Technology 6.046J/18.410J Professors Erik Demaine and Shafi Goldwasser Quiz 1 Quiz 1 Do not open this quiz booklet until you are directed
More informationWhy? A central concept in Computer Science. Algorithms are ubiquitous.
Analysis of Algorithms: A Brief Introduction Why? A central concept in Computer Science. Algorithms are ubiquitous. Using the Internet (sending email, transferring files, use of search engines, online
More informationTo define function and introduce operations on the set of functions. To investigate which of the field properties hold in the set of functions
Chapter 7 Functions This unit defines and investigates functions as algebraic objects. First, we define functions and discuss various means of representing them. Then we introduce operations on functions
More informationSolutions of Linear Equations in One Variable
2. Solutions of Linear Equations in One Variable 2. OBJECTIVES. Identify a linear equation 2. Combine like terms to solve an equation We begin this chapter by considering one of the most important tools
More informationCHAPTER 5. Number Theory. 1. Integers and Division. Discussion
CHAPTER 5 Number Theory 1. Integers and Division 1.1. Divisibility. Definition 1.1.1. Given two integers a and b we say a divides b if there is an integer c such that b = ac. If a divides b, we write a
More informationRegular Languages and Finite Automata
Regular Languages and Finite Automata 1 Introduction Hing Leung Department of Computer Science New Mexico State University Sep 16, 2010 In 1943, McCulloch and Pitts [4] published a pioneering work on a
More informationA Second Course in Mathematics Concepts for Elementary Teachers: Theory, Problems, and Solutions
A Second Course in Mathematics Concepts for Elementary Teachers: Theory, Problems, and Solutions Marcel B. Finan Arkansas Tech University c All Rights Reserved First Draft February 8, 2006 1 Contents 25
More informationThis is a square root. The number under the radical is 9. (An asterisk * means multiply.)
Page of Review of Radical Expressions and Equations Skills involving radicals can be divided into the following groups: Evaluate square roots or higher order roots. Simplify radical expressions. Rationalize
More informationMath 55: Discrete Mathematics
Math 55: Discrete Mathematics UC Berkeley, Fall 2011 Homework # 5, due Wednesday, February 22 5.1.4 Let P (n) be the statement that 1 3 + 2 3 + + n 3 = (n(n + 1)/2) 2 for the positive integer n. a) What
More informationSCORE SETS IN ORIENTED GRAPHS
Applicable Analysis and Discrete Mathematics, 2 (2008), 107 113. Available electronically at http://pefmath.etf.bg.ac.yu SCORE SETS IN ORIENTED GRAPHS S. Pirzada, T. A. Naikoo The score of a vertex v in
More informationWe can express this in decimal notation (in contrast to the underline notation we have been using) as follows: 9081 + 900b + 90c = 9001 + 100c + 10b
In this session, we ll learn how to solve problems related to place value. This is one of the fundamental concepts in arithmetic, something every elementary and middle school mathematics teacher should
More informationEvery tree contains a large induced subgraph with all degrees odd
Every tree contains a large induced subgraph with all degrees odd A.J. Radcliffe Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA A.D. Scott Department of Pure Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics University
More informationTopology-based network security
Topology-based network security Tiit Pikma Supervised by Vitaly Skachek Research Seminar in Cryptography University of Tartu, Spring 2013 1 Introduction In both wired and wireless networks, there is the
More informationPUTNAM TRAINING POLYNOMIALS. Exercises 1. Find a polynomial with integral coefficients whose zeros include 2 + 5.
PUTNAM TRAINING POLYNOMIALS (Last updated: November 17, 2015) Remark. This is a list of exercises on polynomials. Miguel A. Lerma Exercises 1. Find a polynomial with integral coefficients whose zeros include
More informationRow Echelon Form and Reduced Row Echelon Form
These notes closely follow the presentation of the material given in David C Lay s textbook Linear Algebra and its Applications (3rd edition) These notes are intended primarily for in-class presentation
More informationHandout #1: Mathematical Reasoning
Math 101 Rumbos Spring 2010 1 Handout #1: Mathematical Reasoning 1 Propositional Logic A proposition is a mathematical statement that it is either true or false; that is, a statement whose certainty or
More informationLAKE ELSINORE UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT
LAKE ELSINORE UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT Title: PLATO Algebra 1-Semester 2 Grade Level: 10-12 Department: Mathematics Credit: 5 Prerequisite: Letter grade of F and/or N/C in Algebra 1, Semester 2 Course Description:
More informationLecture Notes on Polynomials
Lecture Notes on Polynomials Arne Jensen Department of Mathematical Sciences Aalborg University c 008 Introduction These lecture notes give a very short introduction to polynomials with real and complex
More informationThis asserts two sets are equal iff they have the same elements, that is, a set is determined by its elements.
3. Axioms of Set theory Before presenting the axioms of set theory, we first make a few basic comments about the relevant first order logic. We will give a somewhat more detailed discussion later, but
More informationNo Solution Equations Let s look at the following equation: 2 +3=2 +7
5.4 Solving Equations with Infinite or No Solutions So far we have looked at equations where there is exactly one solution. It is possible to have more than solution in other types of equations that are
More information7.7 Solving Rational Equations
Section 7.7 Solving Rational Equations 7 7.7 Solving Rational Equations When simplifying comple fractions in the previous section, we saw that multiplying both numerator and denominator by the appropriate
More informationAlgebra I. In this technological age, mathematics is more important than ever. When students
In this technological age, mathematics is more important than ever. When students leave school, they are more and more likely to use mathematics in their work and everyday lives operating computer equipment,
More informationFactoring Polynomials
Factoring Polynomials Hoste, Miller, Murieka September 12, 2011 1 Factoring In the previous section, we discussed how to determine the product of two or more terms. Consider, for instance, the equations
More informationLINEAR INEQUALITIES. Mathematics is the art of saying many things in many different ways. MAXWELL
Chapter 6 LINEAR INEQUALITIES 6.1 Introduction Mathematics is the art of saying many things in many different ways. MAXWELL In earlier classes, we have studied equations in one variable and two variables
More informationMath 55: Discrete Mathematics
Math 55: Discrete Mathematics UC Berkeley, Spring 2012 Homework # 9, due Wednesday, April 11 8.1.5 How many ways are there to pay a bill of 17 pesos using a currency with coins of values of 1 peso, 2 pesos,
More informationSummation Algebra. x i
2 Summation Algebra In the next 3 chapters, we deal with the very basic results in summation algebra, descriptive statistics, and matrix algebra that are prerequisites for the study of SEM theory. You
More information9.4. The Scalar Product. Introduction. Prerequisites. Learning Style. Learning Outcomes
The Scalar Product 9.4 Introduction There are two kinds of multiplication involving vectors. The first is known as the scalar product or dot product. This is so-called because when the scalar product of
More informationAnalysis of Algorithms I: Binary Search Trees
Analysis of Algorithms I: Binary Search Trees Xi Chen Columbia University Hash table: A data structure that maintains a subset of keys from a universe set U = {0, 1,..., p 1} and supports all three dictionary
More informationInformation Theory and Coding Prof. S. N. Merchant Department of Electrical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
Information Theory and Coding Prof. S. N. Merchant Department of Electrical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay Lecture - 17 Shannon-Fano-Elias Coding and Introduction to Arithmetic Coding
More informationUndergraduate Notes in Mathematics. Arkansas Tech University Department of Mathematics
Undergraduate Notes in Mathematics Arkansas Tech University Department of Mathematics An Introductory Single Variable Real Analysis: A Learning Approach through Problem Solving Marcel B. Finan c All Rights
More informationEquations, Inequalities & Partial Fractions
Contents Equations, Inequalities & Partial Fractions.1 Solving Linear Equations 2.2 Solving Quadratic Equations 1. Solving Polynomial Equations 1.4 Solving Simultaneous Linear Equations 42.5 Solving Inequalities
More informationSYMBOL AND MEANING IN MATHEMATICS
,,. SYMBOL AND MEANING IN MATHEMATICS ALICE M. DEAN Mathematics and Computer Science Department Skidmore College May 26,1995 There is perhaps no other field of study that uses symbols as plentifully and
More information1.7 Graphs of Functions
64 Relations and Functions 1.7 Graphs of Functions In Section 1.4 we defined a function as a special type of relation; one in which each x-coordinate was matched with only one y-coordinate. We spent most
More informationThe Prime Numbers. Definition. A prime number is a positive integer with exactly two positive divisors.
The Prime Numbers Before starting our study of primes, we record the following important lemma. Recall that integers a, b are said to be relatively prime if gcd(a, b) = 1. Lemma (Euclid s Lemma). If gcd(a,
More informationGeorgia Department of Education Kathy Cox, State Superintendent of Schools 7/19/2005 All Rights Reserved 1
Accelerated Mathematics 3 This is a course in precalculus and statistics, designed to prepare students to take AB or BC Advanced Placement Calculus. It includes rational, circular trigonometric, and inverse
More informationCONTENTS 1. Peter Kahn. Spring 2007
CONTENTS 1 MATH 304: CONSTRUCTING THE REAL NUMBERS Peter Kahn Spring 2007 Contents 2 The Integers 1 2.1 The basic construction.......................... 1 2.2 Adding integers..............................
More informationMathematics for Algorithm and System Analysis
Mathematics for Algorithm and System Analysis for students of computer and computational science Edward A. Bender S. Gill Williamson c Edward A. Bender & S. Gill Williamson 2005. All rights reserved. Preface
More information6.2 Permutations continued
6.2 Permutations continued Theorem A permutation on a finite set A is either a cycle or can be expressed as a product (composition of disjoint cycles. Proof is by (strong induction on the number, r, of
More informationEntry Level College Mathematics: Algebra or Modeling
Entry Level College Mathematics: Algebra or Modeling Dan Kalman Dan Kalman is Associate Professor in Mathematics and Statistics at American University. His interests include matrix theory, curriculum development,
More informationDynamic Programming Problem Set Partial Solution CMPSC 465
Dynamic Programming Problem Set Partial Solution CMPSC 465 I ve annotated this document with partial solutions to problems written more like a test solution. (I remind you again, though, that a formal
More information3 Some Integer Functions
3 Some Integer Functions A Pair of Fundamental Integer Functions The integer function that is the heart of this section is the modulo function. However, before getting to it, let us look at some very simple
More informationProblem of the Month: Perfect Pair
Problem of the Month: The Problems of the Month (POM) are used in a variety of ways to promote problem solving and to foster the first standard of mathematical practice from the Common Core State Standards:
More informationSet theory as a foundation for mathematics
V I I I : Set theory as a foundation for mathematics This material is basically supplementary, and it was not covered in the course. In the first section we discuss the basic axioms of set theory and the
More informationLecture 1: Course overview, circuits, and formulas
Lecture 1: Course overview, circuits, and formulas Topics in Complexity Theory and Pseudorandomness (Spring 2013) Rutgers University Swastik Kopparty Scribes: John Kim, Ben Lund 1 Course Information Swastik
More informationTOPIC 4: DERIVATIVES
TOPIC 4: DERIVATIVES 1. The derivative of a function. Differentiation rules 1.1. The slope of a curve. The slope of a curve at a point P is a measure of the steepness of the curve. If Q is a point on the
More informationCircuits 1 M H Miller
Introduction to Graph Theory Introduction These notes are primarily a digression to provide general background remarks. The subject is an efficient procedure for the determination of voltages and currents
More informationAlgebra I Credit Recovery
Algebra I Credit Recovery COURSE DESCRIPTION: The purpose of this course is to allow the student to gain mastery in working with and evaluating mathematical expressions, equations, graphs, and other topics,
More informationToothpick Squares: An Introduction to Formulas
Unit IX Activity 1 Toothpick Squares: An Introduction to Formulas O V E R V I E W Rows of squares are formed with toothpicks. The relationship between the number of squares in a row and the number of toothpicks
More informationOn Generalized Fermat Numbers 3 2n +1
Applied Mathematics & Information Sciences 4(3) (010), 307 313 An International Journal c 010 Dixie W Publishing Corporation, U. S. A. On Generalized Fermat Numbers 3 n +1 Amin Witno Department of Basic
More informationYou know from calculus that functions play a fundamental role in mathematics.
CHPTER 12 Functions You know from calculus that functions play a fundamental role in mathematics. You likely view a function as a kind of formula that describes a relationship between two (or more) quantities.
More informationC H A P T E R Regular Expressions regular expression
7 CHAPTER Regular Expressions Most programmers and other power-users of computer systems have used tools that match text patterns. You may have used a Web search engine with a pattern like travel cancun
More informationContinued Fractions and the Euclidean Algorithm
Continued Fractions and the Euclidean Algorithm Lecture notes prepared for MATH 326, Spring 997 Department of Mathematics and Statistics University at Albany William F Hammond Table of Contents Introduction
More information6 EXTENDING ALGEBRA. 6.0 Introduction. 6.1 The cubic equation. Objectives
6 EXTENDING ALGEBRA Chapter 6 Extending Algebra Objectives After studying this chapter you should understand techniques whereby equations of cubic degree and higher can be solved; be able to factorise
More informationDATA STRUCTURES USING C
DATA STRUCTURES USING C QUESTION BANK UNIT I 1. Define data. 2. Define Entity. 3. Define information. 4. Define Array. 5. Define data structure. 6. Give any two applications of data structures. 7. Give
More information