Catastrophic Volcanic Eruptions
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1 CEEES/SC The Wrath of Vulcan: Volcanic Eruptions Redoubt Volcano, Alaska eruption. Earth Portrait of a Planet Second Edition Chapter 9 Catastrophic Volcanic Eruptions 2
2 Krakatoa, Indonesia Large quantities of water may seep into magma chamber and produce a Phreatic Eruption or explosion. Krakatoa, blew material halfway around the world! Island 9 5 km - swelled up to 800 m above sea level violent eruption. The island vanished, 80 km 3 of material gone. Left a hole 6 km wide, 300 m below sea level. Blocks of 50 tons blown 35 km. Explosion heard 5,000 km away in Australia. Tropical vegetation from Krakatoa found in African deserts. Ash blown around the world several centimeters settling on on the decks of ships in the Pacific. Earth s annual mean temperature lowered. Tsunami 40 meters high killed 36,000 people & destroyed 300 towns. 3 Destruction of Pompeii, A.D. 79, by Vesuvius Vesuvius 1 a.m. 79 AD. 27 km high ash cloud. Pyroclastic fall and debris flow. Buried in a 6 m thick layer of ash. 20,000 people in Pompeii. 4
3 Vesuvius 5 Vesuvius 6
4 Ash Cloud was FAST! Destruction of Pompeii
5 Products of Volcanic Eruptions Volcanic gases expelled vapor and aerosols Pyroclastic debris fragments blown out of a volcano Lava flows molten rock that moves over the ground Products of Volcanic Eruptions: Lava Flows Copyright 2015 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
6 Basalt Lava Flow Lava Flows Pahoehoe A a 11 Lava Flows Lava Tube
7 Lava Flows Lava Tubes Lava tubes are conduits for basaltic lava. Lava Flows Columnar Jointing
8 Lava Flows Pillow Basalts Andesite Lava Flows Higher silica content = slower moving flows (1-5 m/day), steeper volcanoes. Can break up into a pile of rubble. Rhyolite Builds a steep lava dome. Sticky magma - doesn t flow. If magma freezes in the neck, a spine can get pushed out. Rubble forms because lava shatters as the interior fills with fresh material Tephra: unconsolidated pyroclastic deposits. 16
9 Rhyolitic Lava Flows 17 Pyroclastic Debris Bits thrown out by volcanoes Volcanic Ash Accretionary Lapilli: when wet ash falls it forms small spheres.
10 Pyroclastic Debris Dust/ash = finest. Cinders = sand grains. Bombs/blocks = largest. Bomb = ejected! as lava and streamlined in air as it cools. Tuffs = rock composed of fine-grained pyroclastic particles. Can be cemented or welded. Air fall tuff or water lain. Hyaloclastite = Lava erupts under water/ice and shatters. Fragments become cemented/welded. Volcaniclastic Sediment: reworked pyroclastic debris. Volcanic Breccia = rock composed of larger pyroclastic materials. Santorini 20
11 Pyroclastic Debris Pyroclastic Flow (Nueé Ardente) Ignimbrite: welded tuff from pyroclastic flow. Lahars: mud flows from remobilization of ash. 21 Volcanic Gas CO, H 2 O, CO 2, SO 2, H 2 S, HF. Can form sulfuric acid, which forms aerosols that stay airborne. Form vesicles in lava. Water (H 2 O) the most abundant Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) second in abundance Sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) creates rotten egg smell 22
12 SUMMARY A magma chamber Fissures and vents Craters Calderas Distinctive profiles: Shield volcanoes Cinder cones Stratovolcanoes CALDERA FORMATION When a magma chamber drains, leaves a void & the top of the volcano tends to collapse downwards. Caldera: large, steep-sided, circular or oval crater several kilometers in diameter. For example, Crater Lake National Park, Orgeon created 6,600 years ago. Also Yellowstone. Magma often solidifies in the magma chamber = INTRUSIVE. Can also form by huge explosions. 24
13 Crater: circular depression at top of volcano ( m across). Caldera: huge circular depression - much bigger than crater. 25 CALDERA Crater Lake, Oregon, is actually a caldera, not a crater. 26
14 FISSURE ERUPTIONS Flood lavas from long fissures. Very hot mafic lavas = flood basalts, which form plateaus (e.g., Columbia Plateau Oregon and Idaho; Deccan Traps, India). Can form on land (continental flood basalts) or in the sea (oceanic plateaus). For example, Ontong Java Plateau, SW Pacific; Iceland. Environmental Effects. Often flows have columnar jointing upon cooling (relatively slow cooling in thick lava flows (e.g., Giants Causeway, Ireland; Fingles Cave, Scotland). 27 FISSURE ERUPTIONS Fissure eruption may form several central vents. Mid-ocean ridges - Iceland. MOR + Hot Spot. Large Igneous Provinces.
15 FISSURE ERUPTIONS Large Igneous Provinces. Hot spot volcanism follows flood volcanism. 29 Types of Volcanoes Shield: Low viscosity; Mafic; Low gas content. Low profile, slopes Large & long-lived. Typically non-violent eruptions. Mauna Loa Hawaii 30
16 Satellite View of Hawaii Mauna Kea Mauna Loa Kilauea Olympus Mons Largest Shield Volcano in the Solar System 32
17 TAMU Massif Largest Shield Volcano on Earth 33 Mauna Kea Cinder Cone Cinder Cone
18 Cinder Cone Spatter Cone, Hawaii Small volcanoes with slopes ~30. Seldom >500 meters high. Made up of loose fragments ( pyroclasts ) ejected by firefountaining, because of gas content, from a central vent: Very fine ash; Blocks, angular solid material; Cinders; Bombs molten material rounded during travel. Short life span (gas exhausted) and easily eroded. For example, Craters of the Moon, Idaho. Violent due to gas content of the magma. Can form from any magma composition. 35 Cinder Cone, Nicaragua 36
19 COMPOSITE/ STRATO VOLCANO 37 COMPOSITE / STRATOVOLCANO Intermediate slope angle, very large, sometimes >1,000 meters. Alternating layers of lava and pyroclasts. Lava layers inhibit weathering and erosion. Magma composition = intermediate, with a variable gas content (lava + pyroclasts). Very long-lived. For example, Mt. Fuji, Japan. Mt. Vesuvius, Italy. Mt. Ranier (andesite); Mt St Helens (rhyolitic). 38
20 May 18, 1980 Mount St. Helens 40
21 Volcano Size and Shape Eruptions Effusive Basaltic lava flows. Lava tubes. Shield volcanoes. Explosive Cinder cones, fire fountains, volcanic bombs. Calderas. Ash. Pyroclastic flows. Pumice. Phreatomagmatic: water gets in the magma chamber - causes explosion because of steam. Viscosity and gas content determines the general type of eruption. 42
22 Recognizing Old Volcanoes 43 Eruption Style An effusive eruption. An explosive eruption.
23 Strombolian eruption Eruption Style Vulcanian eruption Eruption Style Plinian eruption Surtseyan eruption
24 Hazards Related to Volcanoes A pyroclastic flow from the Mt. Pinatuba eruption in 1991 Hazards Related to Volcanoes Iceland sits on a MOR. One big volcano! Lava flows are always a hazard. Heimaey, 1973 controlled lava flow by cooling it with water to divert flow from blocking up the harbor. Fortunately the lava was moving slowly.
25 Hazards Related to Volcanoes Lava general not that hazardous because it moves relatively slowly in most cases. It is HOT! Will burn things in its way. Don t build on slopes of volcanoes lava flows downhill! BUT volcanic soils are very fertile and because of the infrequency of eruptions causes people to forget the volcano is active (e.g., Mt St Helens). Lava Flows Volcanic Hazards Hawaii Hawaii Goma, W. Africa - basalt lava traveled 50 km. 2 m of lava in Goma.
26 Wahalua Visitors Center Aflame in Hawaii Ruins of the Visitors Center After Lava Cooled Volcanic Hazards Pumice, Ash, and Lapilli Fragments ~0.01 mm across. Falling roofs. Hazard to aircraft. Armero, Columbia Lahars 52
27 Lahars E.g., Pinatubo, Mt. St Helens. Mudflows choke river channels flow like water and set with the consistency of concrete. Form initially by volcano melting snow and ice on summit. May also form by heavy rains washing ash into rivers. Can be long term hazards (decades) because of diverted drainage and continued erosion of loose ash. Mudflow and Flood Damage from Mt. St. Helens Abacan River Mudflows, Philippines 53 Pyroclastic Flows Volcanic Hazards May 8 th, 1902: Nueé Ardente (glowing cloud) erupted. Temperature ~700 C; cloud was comprised of ash & pyroclastics (volcanic rocks fragmented by explosion) on a cushion of air. St. Pierre was incinerated, 28,000 people killed, 2 survivors. St. Pierre, Martinique. Mt. Peleé. Mt. Fuji
28 Montserrat Ash Cloud 55 The Blast Volcanic Hazards Earthquakes Movement of magma generates earthquakes, which can generate landslides and even promote eruption. Gas Lake Nyos, Cameroon. August 21, km 3 of CO 2 belched forth.
29 TOXIC GASES Gases emitted by volcanoes can be toxic and deadly (SO 2, HCl, CO, CO 2 ). Cameroon, 21 st August, 1986: Lake Nyos sits along a rift zone known for volcanic activity. Massive cloud of CO 2 emitted and suffocated 1,742 people/6,000 cattle. CO 2 is denser than air. Landslides Mt. St. Helens: 8 billion tons of debris slid 20 km at 250 km/hr. Tsunamis Generated by massive landslides and huge explosions. Volcanic Hazards Wave height At Banda Aceh 58
30 Climate & Atmospheric Chemistry Dust/ash into the atmosphere can block out the sun and reduce global temperatures. Krakotoa, 1883: Global temperature decreased by 0.5 C and effects persisted for 10 years. Tambora, Indonesia, 1816: Produced year without a summer. El Chichon, Mexico, 1982: put a lot of sulfur-rich gas into the upper atmosphere, which produced clouds of sulfuric acid droplets blocked out the sun and produced acid rain. 59 Climate & Atmospheric Chemistry Mt. Pinatubo, 1991: climatic effects measured by scientists dust and SO 2 pumped into the atmosphere. SO 2 stays airborne for years, hence the long effects. Cooling ~0.5 C, but greatest effect in the mid-latitudes of N. Hemisphere. Temperatures had rebounded by SO 2 emissions into the atmosphere also erode the ozone layer. Pinatubo Effects on Near-Surface Temperatures
31 Tracking the Path of Sulfuric-Acid Mist 61 Issues in Predicting Volcanic Eruptions Activity Classification Active: volcano has erupted in recent history; Dormant: inactive at present, but with the potential to become active at any time; Extinct: very unlikely to erupt again. Precise rules for putting volcanoes into these categories do not exist. For example, on average active volcanoes erupt every 220 years, but 2% erupt less than once every 10,000 years active volcanoes cannot monitor all of them. Vesuvius had been regarded as extinct then it destroyed Pompeii in 79 A.D. 62
32 Volcanic Precursors Seismic activity, due to the upward-moving magma, earthquakes becoming shallower and more numerous as the magma gets closer to the surface and eruption nears. The shock of a larger earthquake may release the eruption (e.g., Mt. St. Helens). Bulging of the volcano s surface. Cannot precisely say when the volcano will erupt. Tilt Record of Kilauea, Hawaii Yellowstone National Park: Doming is starting to occur. Eruption imminent? Other Areas for Concern
33 Cascade Region Other Areas for Concern Lots of active volcanoes (e.g., Mount St. Helens, 1980). Mount Baker, 1870; Mount Hood, 1865; Mount Shasta, sometime in the last 200 years; Mount Ranier, Mudflows from Mt. Rainier The next eruption will produce mudflows through melting of glaciers.
34 Summary Catastrophic Volcanic Eruptions: Krakatoa, Pompeii. Lava Flows: Basalt (Pahoehoe, A a, Lava Tube, Columnar Jointing, Pillow Basalts). Andesite. Rhyolite. Pyroclastic Debris: Ash, Lapilli, Cinders, Bombs/Blocks, Tuffs, Hyaloclastites, Volcanic Breccia, Volcaniclastic Sediments, Ignimbrite, Lahar, Nueé Ardente. Gas: Vesicles. Caldera Formation. Fissure Eruptions: MOR, Ht Spots, LIPs. Types of Volcano: Shield, Cinder Cone, Spatter Cone, Composite/ Stratovolcano. Eruptions: Effusive, Explosive, Phreatomagmatic. Volcanic Hazards: Lava Flows; Pumice, Ash, Lapilli; Lahars; Pyroclastic Flows; Blast; Earthquakes; Gas; Landslides; Tsunamis; Climatic Effects. Activity Classification: Active, Dormant, Extinct. Volcanic Eruption Precursors. Areas for Concern: Yellowstone, Mt. Hood, Mt St. Helens. Mt. Ranier.
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