Module Eight: SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

Transcription

1 Module Eight: SPORT PSYCHOLOGY Introduction The CNZ Level 1 course, outlines some basic sport psychology principles in terms of motivation, goal setting, anxiety and activation, pre-competition preparation, and relaxation. The Level 2 course presents, in some detail, two of the areas seen by coaches as being most important for athletes to develop and master mental skills: motivation and arousal control. Some basic mental skills training techniques, such as thought control, goal setting, and one breath relaxation are also discussed. The programme presented in this module covers the areas of motivation and arousal control in more depth, and introduces the concepts of attention and psychological aspects of injury rehabilitation. Further mental skills training techniques in all of these four areas are also introduced. On completion of this module, you will be able to: Apply motivation theory to modify your athletes' motivated behaviour. Apply arousal control techniques to help your athletes manage stress and control arousal. Apply thought control techniques to assist your athletes to maintain optimal levels of concentration. Explain psychological aspects of injury rehabilitation. Explain psychological aspects relating to transition out of a career in sport. Page 1 Coaching New Zealand 2002

2 1. Apply motivation theory to modify your athletes' motivated behaviour. Mental Skills Training Coaches often refer to 'mental strength' and 'mental toughness' when attempting to describe that elusive quality which distinguishes the great players from the good ones in any sport. This quality is underpinned by specific mental skills, and the coach has an important role in helping an athlete or team to develop and perfect these skills. Sport psychology focuses on teaching practical mental skills to athletes, so they can develop their psychological abilities to the same high level as their physical abilities. The key difference between winning and losing, or a good performance and a poor performance, may be the mental skill level rather than the physical skill level. As with physical skills, these mental skills need to be taught correctly, fine-tuned by the coach and athlete, and then practised until they are mastered. It is important to recognise that this focus on mental skill development is appropriate for athletes of all ages and grades, from juniors and novices through to national representatives. Following these basic guidelines for mental skill development, your athletes can all attain higher levels of personal excellence and greater life satisfaction. Motivation Theory A lot of research has been undertaken in the area of sport motivation, and many different theories have developed from this research. Weiss and Chaumeton (1992) have proposed an integrated model of sport motivation (see Table 1) that pulls together the common themes of the various theories, and presents factors which influence sport motivation. Research indicates that a crucial factor in an athlete's decision whether to persist in or drop out of sport is his/her motivational orientation. A mastery-oriented athlete looks for optimal challenges through which he/she can learn and improve skills, and develops a self-reward structure and standard of mastery goals. This increases his/her perceptions of competence and performance control, results in positive affect, and increases the likelihood that he/she will put in the effort to continue to improve and to persist in sport. Outcome-oriented athletes tend to look for less than optimal challenges, and focus on winning as a means of assessing their ability. They may come to rely upon external information sources to assess their capabilities. As a result, these athletes tend to develop reward systems based on external criteria, and adopt outcome goals. Their perceptions of competence may be reduced, and they are likely to experience a heightened state of anxiety in mastery situations. Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 2

3 The end result may be decreases in their persistence in sport, and they may drop out altogether. This has serious implications for coaches. It is important to understand the underlying processes that explain motivation in physical achievement settings. Encouraging athletes to develop a mastery-orientation at the start of the motivational process will give them the best chance to experience sport as a self-fulfilling, worthwhile and enjoyable activity. The integrated model consists of core factors that influence the participation motivation of athletes. On the outer edges of the model, individual difference factors and contextual factors influence the core aspects of sport motivation. CORE FACTOR IN MODEL Motivational orientation Mastery attempts Performance outcomes MASTERY-ORIENTED ATHLETE Emphasises the process of participation, fun, etc. Chooses optimally challenging activities, difficult but realistic, maximal effort and persistence. Focuses on performance improvements, success related to achievement. OUTCOME-ORIENTED ATHLETE Emphasises the product of participation, winning, etc. Chooses very easy or very hard tasks to avoid failure or to demonstrate high ability. Focuses on objective outcomes to judge success, ie. win/lose. Feedback and reinforcement by adults and peers Approval or disapproval and praise or criticism related to a successful or unsuccessful performance will have a significant impact on motivation. Parents play an important role in development, and reinforcement from peers becomes more important during adolescence. Development of a reward system and standard of goals Perceptions of competence and performance control Affect/emotion Develops internal reward systems and standard of goals. Internal reward systems and mastery goals create high perceptions of competence and internal control. Experiences greater positive emotion due to emphasis on subjective performance outcomes. Develops external reward system and depends on externally defined goals. External criteria and goals encourage low perceptions of competence and external perception of performance control. Only experiences positive emotions when wins; creates greater anxiety and lower motivation when loses. Motivated behaviour Greater persistence and motivation. Persistence while winning; if unable to see success, may drop out. Table 1. Summary of core factors in Integrated Model of Sport Motivation (Weiss & Chaumeton, 1992) and their effects on mastery and outcome-oriented athletes. Page 3 Coaching New Zealand 2002

4 The Core of the Integrated Model This represents: Changes in motivation in the form of activity choices, effort and persistence. Motivation as an individual difference factor signifying the starting point of the model, and motivated behaviour as the outcome variable at the end point. The hurdles in between these points which athletes have to surmount to reach the end point, which is the motivated behaviour. Motivation Orientation Athletes' characteristic outlook in relation to their involvement in physical activity. Intrinsic/mastery emphasises the process of participation, eg. skill improvement, social aspects, fitness, and fun. Extrinsic/outcome emphasises the product of participation, eg. winning, gaining social status or recognition, rewards, social approval. Mastery Attempts Demonstration of an athlete's ability, influenced by his/her mastery-oriented or outcome-oriented motivational stance. Mastery-oriented athletes tend to choose optimally challenging activities that are difficult but realistic. They put in maximal effort and persistence to achieve success at these activities. Outcome-oriented athletes may choose very easy or very difficult tasks in order to demonstrate high ability and avoid demonstrating low ability. Choosing an optimally challenging task may increase the risk of demonstrating low ability. Performance Outcomes Objective outcomes are generally thought of in terms of winning or losing. Subjective outcomes reflect an athlete's perception of success and failure. Mastery-oriented athletes are likely to focus on performance improvements in relation to previous standards of performance. Their perception of success or failure is more related to achievement than to the objective outcome of winning or losing. Outcome-oriented athletes are likely to define success and failure in terms of objective competitive outcomes, particularly as they relate to the performance of others; winning is associated with high ability and losing with low ability. Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 4

5 Individual difference factors cognitive maturity physical maturity gender importance of success in sport Motivated behaviour Affect Perceptions of competence and control Reward system and standard of goals developed (internal vs external criteria) Feedback and reinforcement by adults and peers Performance outcomes (success and failure) Mastery attempts (and task difficulty) Motivational orientation Intrinsic/mastery Extrinsic/outcome competence, affiliation, fitness, fun social approval, rewards, status, winning Contextual factors reward structure coaching style sport type socio-cultural factors Figure 1. Integrated model of sport motivation. Page 5 Coaching New Zealand 2002

6 Feedback and Reinforcement by Adults and Peers The role of significant others (parents, coaches, peers) plays an important part in the motivation of children and adolescents. The quantity and, more importantly, the quality of feedback and reinforcement given has enormous consequences for the continued participation of young athletes in sport. Approval or disapproval of mastery attempts and/or outcomes, praise or criticism in response to behaviours, and the type of feedback given in response to successful performance (correct skill execution or winning) and unsuccessful performance (failure to achieve a personal goal or losing) will all have a significant impact on young athletes. The importance of feedback and reinforcement by significant others changes as children grow developmentally. Parents play an important role early on, which later declines as the role of peers becomes increasingly prominent as children move towards adolescence. Development of a Reward System and a Standard of Goals The development is linked to sources of information available and the way in which athletes define success and failure. Mastery-oriented athletes who seek optimal challenges, use self-improvement to define success, and who are reinforced by others for independent mastery attempts, tend to develop an internal reward system and standard of goals. Outcome-oriented athletes who seek less than optimal challenges, define success in terms of their performance relative to others, and are reinforced by others mainly for their performance outcome, tend to develop an external reward system and dependence on externally defined goals. Perceptions of Competence and Performance Control Athletes' performance and participation behaviour is strongly related to the degree to which they feel capable of succeeding at an activity. Perceptions of control relate to the degree to which athletes feel they themselves (internal) or others (external) are responsible for success or failure in certain situations. Perceptions of competence and control are shaped by previous successes and failures, and by characteristic feedback and reinforcement from significant others. Athletes who have developed internal reward systems and mastery goals tend to have high perceptions of competence and internal control. Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 6

7 Athletes who have developed external criteria to assess their ability and externally defined goals, tend to have low perceptions of competence and an external perception of performance control. Affect or Emotion A weighty influence on motivated behaviour and performance. Positive affect (eg. enjoyment, happiness, pride, excitement, pleasure) maintains and enhances motivation and future mastery attempts. Negative affect (eg. anxiety, embarrassment, shame, sadness, disappointment) lessens future participation motivation. Mastery-oriented athletes are more likely to experience positive affect in their participation because of their emphasis on subjective performance outcomes. Outcome-oriented athletes are likely to experience positive affect only when they win. They also tend to experience higher levels of anxiety in achievement situations, which may result in decreased performance and lowered motivation. Motivated Behaviour Demonstration of persistence and motivated behaviour in sport is the primary goal of positive psychological development, according to this model. Motivation in sport focuses on how to maximise participation rates through an emphasis on intrinsic motivation, mastery goals, and the enjoyment of active involvement. Athletes who reach this stage have chosen to exercise maximal effort and persistence in sport. Mastery-oriented athletes who enjoy participating and feel successful in achieving personal goals, are likely to continue their participation in sport. Outcome-oriented athletes who define success only in terms of others, will persist only as long as they are 'successful' (ie. winning) and are able to maintain a high perception of their ability. Outcome-oriented athletes who experience failure in relation to the performance of others, and experience decreased perceived ability, usually drop out of sport. Individual Difference Factors There are many individual difference factors which influence an athlete's motivational stance. The most relevant of these are discussed in this section. Page 7 Coaching New Zealand 2002

8 Cognitive Maturity Cognitive maturity is a major consideration in an athlete's ability to analyse behaviour outcomes. The influences of cognitive development on motivation include: Ways in which individuals relate their ability and effort to success and failure experiences. Importance placed on parents, coaches, and peers as sources of information to assess their ability. Preference for internal or external criteria to evaluate competence. Physical Maturity Physical maturity plays a primary role in sporting achievement. Early success is likely to be strongly related to continued participation in sport. Other factors likely to influence this relationship include: Parental beliefs about, and expectations of, performance. Degree of peer acceptance and support for the athlete's participation in sport. Gender Males tend to be more outcome-oriented than females, while females tend to be more mastery-oriented in their motivation. Competition appears to decrease females' intrinsic motivation while increasing that of males. There appear to be no gender differences in the importance of information sources used to assess ability, predictors of affective outcomes, and the relationship between accuracy of perceived competence and other achievement-related characteristics. Importance of Success in Sport Athletes who have low perceived competence in sport, but who do not consider athletic excellence important to their self-esteem, will not show dysfunctional achievement behaviours. Where high levels of physical achievement are important to an athlete, successful and unsuccessful performances will have a significant impact on the athlete's self-perception and persistence in sport. A number of individual difference factors, such as those mentioned here, may affect the pathways in this integrated model of sport participation. Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 8

9 Contextual Factors Social contextual factors may also affect the pathways in the motivational model. Reward Structures Competitive, co-operative, and individualistic structures are all likely to appeal to particular goal orientations. Direct (performance against an opponent) and indirect (performance against a standard) competitive structures are expected to appeal to different motivational orientations and, therefore, have implications for continued participation in or drop out from sport. Coaching Style Whether a coach has a controlling or autocratic style or a more informational style, giving lots of instructions and positive feedback can have an influence on his/her athletes' selfperceptions and motivated behaviour. The motivational orientation of the athlete is most compatible with a coach who uses that athlete's preferred coaching style: A mastery-oriented athlete, who has an internal perception of performance control, would be more compatible with a coach who provides frequent, positive feedback relating to performance success and error, and opportunities for shared decision-making. An outcome-oriented athlete, who has an external perception of control, tends to be best suited to a more autocratic style of coaching. The coach's instructions are expected to be followed and competitive outcome is the most important indication of a successful performance. Sport Type Differences It is thought that the inherent characteristics of particular sports would influence the process described in the core of the motivational model, eg. elite vs competitive vs recreational sport, team vs individual sports, contact vs non-contact sports. Different sport types appear to emphasise different motivational orientations and the adoption of certain reinforcement systems and goals. Page 9 Coaching New Zealand 2002

10 Sociocultural Factors As individual differences and situational factors influence motivational orientation, it is thought that achievement behaviour is most likely to be affected by sociocultural factors such as ethnicity, race and social class. Attributions for Failure 'Controlling the Controllables' set performance goals If athletes can control their goals, they are wholly responsible for them, eg. bowlers in cricket - aiming to put 11/12 balls in the right place. If they accept that they can control these factors, when things go wrong they must also accept responsibility for the situation, ie. they must be responsible for their own actions and for the factors they can control. Coaches should encourage athletes to evaluate their own performance. Athletes should not be judgmental; rather they should focus on their behaviour or performance, not on themselves as individuals. Failure may be seen as just another rung on the ladder to success, if you learn from it. Athletes need to develop and adopt positive attributions: "I will accept responsibility, therefore I can do something about it". They need to eliminate negative attributions, ie. blaming someone or something else such as the pitch, officials, other athletes, crowd, weather, and so on. If athletes blame factors outside their control, they will not be able to do anything about it when things go wrong. Coaches must encourage athletes to take responsibility for their actions and to set controllable goals. This will enable them to take a problem solving approach to failure, as explained in detail in Level 2, ie. to confront issues as they arise, identify the specific causes, find solutions, and take action. Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 10

11 Questions & Exercises Explain the practical implications of the integrated model of motivation theory for goal setting for your own athletes, taking into account your own coaching behaviour. Explain how information from the model may be used to help modify an outcome-oriented athlete's motivated behaviour. Discuss the following scenario with respect to the integrated model of sport motivation: You coach an 18 year old female athlete. The athlete has consistently won her matches and competitions over the last three years, and is now playing at senior level and losing more regularly. She is starting to lose her motivation. Notes Page 11 Coaching New Zealand 2002

12 Notes Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 12

13 Notes Page 13 Coaching New Zealand 2002

14 2. Apply arousal control techniques to help your athletes manage stress and control arousal. Arousal Control All athletes need a certain amount of arousal to perform well. However, the level of arousal varies amongst sports and between individuals. Some athletes need to be more highly aroused than others to perform at the same level, while some sports require the participants to be more aroused than others. Stress may be positive (eg. excitement, anticipation) or negative (eg. anxiety, worry). The right degree of positive stress arouses athletes, and enables them to solve problems faster and to achieve their peak performance. When stress interferes with an athlete's ability to perform at optimal level and adversely affects his/her concentration, the stress is negative. One theory used to explain the relationship between arousal and performance is the often quoted Inverted-U hypothesis. Simply stated, when an athlete s arousal level is low, he/she tends to feel indifferent about the activity and performance tends to be well below his/her optimal level. As arousal or stress increases and while the athlete remains confident of his/her ability to control the stress, there tends to be a corresponding improvement in performance, but only to the athlete s optimal performance point. Beyond this point, any further increases in arousal influence the athlete s ability to cope and cause a deterioration in performance. Individuals vary considerably in their response to stress-provoking situations, depending on whether they perceive the situation or environmental demands to be threatening or nonthreatening. If an athlete perceives a situation to be threatening, then his/her stress may have a negative affect on performance. However, if he/she views the situation as challenging or in another positive way, the situation will have a neutral or positive affect on performance. Individual athletes have an optimal level of pre-competition arousal that results in peak performances. If their level of arousal lies outside this area, either low or high, they will not achieve optimal performance. Coaches need to be aware of each athlete s individual response to stress and their optimal level of arousal. Stress Management Techniques There are many ways to manage stress and control arousal. What works best for one athlete will not necessarily work for another. This section outlines Rainer Marten's (1987) model of the stress response. The model presents two Stress Formulas, which provide three approaches to managing stress (see Table 2): Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 14

15 i. Changing the environment ii. Controlling arousal levels iii. Eliminating negative thoughts Stress Formula 1 If stress results through the process illustrated in Stress Formula 1, where the environment has stimulated dysfunctional arousal which, in turn, has resulted in negative thoughts, then somatic stress management techniques (eg. relaxation) will usually work best. In this formula, arousal occurs first because the athlete has been conditioned to respond in a particular way through previous experience of similar situations. Intervention with physical relaxation techniques at this point is aimed at controlling arousal levels before any negative thoughts occur. Stress in sport occurs far less frequently in this way, therefore relaxation techniques alone are seldom sufficient to control excessive arousal. Stress Formula 2 Conversely, if stress results, as in Stress Formula 2 where the environment has stimulated negative thoughts which have subsequently caused dysfunctional arousal, then cognitive stress management techniques (eg. thought control, rational thinking, pre-competition routines, self-talk strategies) are likely to be more successful. This enables the athlete to control the negative thoughts before they cause excessive arousal. Often in this situation, relaxation techniques are not as effective because they do not deal with the initial cause of the stress. Stress Formula 1 Environmental stimulus Arousal Negative thoughts = Stress Somatic stress management techniques Cognitive stress management techniques Stress Formula 2 Environmental stimulus Negative thoughts Arousal = Stress Cognitive stress management techniques Somatic stress management techniques Table 2. Rainer Marten's Model The use of Somatic and Cognitive Stress Management Techniques. Page 15 Coaching New Zealand 2002

16 Intervening to address stress early in its development, through environmental engineering, is likely to be most effective. Example: Netball Environmental stimulus: A young goal shooter's first season in senior netball and the team is due to play the national club champions. Her opposing player is the Silver Ferns goalkeep who is much taller and bigger than she is. Negative thoughts: "I'll never be able to get around her or shoot over her. What will my coach/team/supporters think?" Dysfunctional arousal: Increased muscle tension, increased anxiety and worry, cold and clammy hands. What we think determines how we feel emotionally and then how we behave. It is clear that without successful intervention, this young player's thoughts and subsequent arousal response will be detrimental to her performance. The stress management techniques presented in this section will help athletes improve their stress management skills so they can cope better with pressure in competitive situations. It is not intended to help athletes who are suffering from severe stress to the extent they have become dysfunctional. These athletes should seek professional help. Environmental Engineering In a situation where the outcome is considered to be important, if an athlete perceives an environmental demand to be too tough or beyond their capabilities, then his/her thinking becomes distorted. Environmental engineering involves changing the athlete's perceptions of the situation by either decreasing the perceived importance of the event in his/her mind, or by removing unnecessary uncertainty about what is to be faced. Decreasing Importance Intrinsic rewards are not directly available to the coach to engineer, but they can be discussed with the athlete and then put into a realistic perspective. Extrinsic rewards may or may not be available to engineer. The coach will be able to talk about the importance of the match in relation to the season's competition etc, and he/she will certainly have some control over external rewards such as praise, approval, and an athlete's selection to compete. Athletes may be encouraged to view the situation as challenging, and as a great opportunity to perform rather than something to be scared of. They may also be encouraged to treat the situation in a similar way to other events, with an emphasis on a performance focus. Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 16

17 Reducing Unnecessary Uncertainty Make athletes aware of the situation they will be facing by discussing and explaining exactly what it will be like and what is likely to happen. Make athletes aware of the situation they will be facing by discussing and explaining exactly what it will be like and what is likely to happen. Make specific plans (coping strategies) for situations that might occur to help reduce the uncertainty of the athletes' responses to those situations. Cognitive Stress Management Cognitive stress management techniques are intended to change dysfunctional ways of thinking - to eliminate 'stinking thinking'. To achieve peak performance, athletes need to think constructively. The goal shooter in the previous example needs to eliminate her negative thoughts and concentrate instead on more 'helpful thinking'. "I have shot well in previous games, sinking 80%. I am quicker and more agile than she is, so I can get into a good position to receive the ball for a shot." Page 17 Coaching New Zealand 2002

18 Athletes need to practise the mental skills required to achieve their goals before attempting them in competition. While they provide no guarantee of success, they do give athletes a better chance at it. Thought Control Learn to recognise the environmental cues that stimulate negative thoughts and then the thoughts themselves, when they occur. Develop an internal cue and yell "Stop!" to disrupt the negative flow. Replace the thoughts with constructive, helpful thinking. Prepare constructive thoughts in advance. Deal with the negative thoughts later, to reduce the chance of them occurring again. Rational Thinking This is a useful technique to employ if athletes are unable to replace stinking thinking with helpful thinking, because they sincerely believe the negative thoughts to be true. Assist the athlete to detect irrational thoughts, which usually involve an attempt to control situations or people beyond his/her control. Assist the athlete to eliminate these irrational thoughts by helping him/her to dispute them and recognise them as being irrational. Assist the athlete to replace the irrational thoughts with rational thoughts and positive affirmation statements that are both believable and vivid, eg. "I really come through under pressure", "winners think they can and they do". Pre-competition Routines Identify specific and relevant tasks for athletes to concentrate on before competition starts, and develop plans for going through these. Identify cue words that will direct the athletes to concentrate on task-relevant thoughts. Help athletes use positive self-statements for motivation. Self-talk Strategies These strategies help athletes stay focused in the present rather than dwelling on past mistakes or worrying about what might happen in the future. Identify thoughts the athlete has in his/her mind, before and during competition, that are associated with particularly good and particularly poor performances. Using the thoughts that prepared the athlete to do well, assist him/her to develop a set of verbal cues to keep his/her mind focused on the present task, eg. golfer about to putt - "smooth stroke", sprinter in starting blocks - "go, explode"; Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 18

19 Use verbal cues to direct and sustain effort, eg. "go for it", "pick it up", "cool it", "hold on to it". Somatic Stress Management Techniques Over-arousal and excessive tension makes it difficult to execute the skills required to perform optimally and even simple movements may be awkward. Somatic stress management techniques help reduce arousal and tension in the body. Then the mind has no reason to search for an explanation of why the body is over-aroused. Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR) This is an excellent technique to teach an awareness of relaxation, and the difference between a tense muscle and a relaxed muscle. It is often a good technique to teach initially. Most athletes will then prefer to leave out the tensing cycle and progressively relax their muscles, or use one of the many other techniques around. Ask athletes to progressively tense and relax the major muscle groups through the body, including the face, neck and shoulders, arms, chest and upper back, abdomen, lower back, thighs and calves, and feet. Instruct the athletes to hold each contraction as tightly as possible for four to five seconds. They should then relax the muscle group, releasing all the tension. The athletes should focus on how the relaxation feels, ie. loose, relaxed, light, warm, etc. Repeat the tensing/relaxation cycle for the same muscle group once more. Ask the athletes to repeat with other muscle groups, teaching them to combine muscle groups so they can eventually relax the entire body at one time. Instruct the athletes to practise until they are able to achieve full relaxation in a few seconds. This technique is particularly helpful for athletes who have difficulty achieving the right amount of tension in particular muscle groups, eg. hamstrings relaxed sufficiently in a sprinter. Page 19 Coaching New Zealand 2002

20 Imagery/Quiet Place Relaxation Select a quiet, comfortable setting. Athletes should be alert but not overly excited, sitting or lying in a comfortable position. Create a positive attitude in the athletes' minds about learning the skill. Ask athletes to think of their favourite places for relaxing and instruct them to relax, breathing in deeply and out slowly, letting go of the tension in their muscles. Ask them to see and feel themselves in their chosen place and to notice the feeling of relaxation. Instruct athletes to regularly practise the skill without your guidance, so they can eventually quickly create the picture vividly in their mind and feel the associated relaxation. One Breath Relaxation This self-directed relaxation technique was covered in Level Two. It is the most practical technique an athlete can learn. One breath relaxation is a quick technique that allows athletes to turn off tension when directed to do so, giving them a brief mind/body time-out or rest before resuming action again. It is very important to practise this technique until it is perfected. Ask the athletes to breathe in from the abdomen and diaphragm. As they breathe in, they should imagine that all the muscles from the top of the chest, shoulders and jaw are loosening; Ask the athletes to breathe out. As they breathe out, they should imagine that all excess tension is draining out through their feet, that their hamstrings have become loose, and their feet are really light; Instruct the athletes to immediately re-focus on the correct attentional cue, ie. having completed the one breath relaxation, the athletes must direct their attention straight back to the task at hand. Emphasise slow, easy breathing, and visualising the tension flowing out of the body. Instruct athletes to practise the technique on their own, without guidance from the coach. With practise, they will gradually reduce the time and number of self-instructions required to achieve the desired level of relaxation, aiming at a few seconds to relax completely. Athletes need to practise all these techniques, trying them out first with minor events, then gradually using them in events with increasing amounts of stress. They may be useful in both sporting contexts, and in the athletes' daily lives. When introducing new techniques, ask your athletes if they have any of their own that work for them. Start by building and improving on these, provided they are safe, before encouraging them to try something new. The belief that mental skills work in competition is essential to their success. It is important to find the right techniques for each individual Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 20

21 athlete. Start by teaching the simple ones first, then progress to the more complex. In most cases, stress is best managed by utilising a combination of somatic and cognitive techniques. Combined Intervention Technique Techniques utilising relaxation, imagery and cognitive interventions have varying degrees of effectiveness in managing stress in different athletes. For athletes who have difficulty coping with stress in competition, a technique that incorporates all three may be more helpful. Butler (1996) recommends a process called PRESSURE, which can be broken down as described below: Prepare Relax Externalise Stay Positive Single Minded Unite Re-evaluate Extend yourself Mentally prepare for what will be faced during the competition. Use relaxation techniques, especially breathing exercises, prior to competition to prevent over arousal that would result in a deterioration in performance. Use thought control and rational thinking techniques to externalise any problems and instil the belief that the problems are not within the athletes themselves. This is particularly useful when athletes do not feel confident about the number of demands placed on them. Use cognitive stress management techniques to help athletes instil confidence in their abilities. Stay focused on the task at hand. Do this both at training and in competition. Consider the roles other people (both other athletes and support people) will fill during competition and the importance of working together as a team throughout the event. Especially important in team sports, this is also applicable in individual events. Reflect on how important this event is in the real world? Aim for a best performance every time, regardless of how important, or unimportant, the competition may appear to be. (Reference: Butler Sport Psychology in Action. Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, England.) Page 21 Coaching New Zealand 2002

22 Questions & Exercises Write down three negative thoughts you have had today, or during your last coaching session. Prepare positive self-talk statements to replace the negative thoughts. Identify common irrational thoughts (eg. "I have to win this race today", "I never handle pressure well. As soon as I m under pressure, I know I'll lose"). Explain how athletes may dispute these and replace them with rational thoughts. Teach one of your athletes, or another coach, the one breath relaxation technique. Explain how it would be useful in your sport. Explain other methods of relaxation that you or your athletes use and find effective. Notes Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 22

23 Notes Page 23 Coaching New Zealand 2002

24 3. Apply thought control techniques to assist your athletes to maintain optimal levels of concentration. Attention One of the most important keys to achieving peak performance in sport is the ability of athletes to control their thought processes, to concentrate on a task, eg. "keep your eye on the ball". Mental control is frequently the deciding factor in competition at all levels. Nideffer's Dimensions of Attention When a coach tells athletes to concentrate, the coach needs to make it clear to the athletes what he/she means. According to Nideffer (1993), there are two dimensions of attention: i. width, which describes whether attention is broadly focused or narrowly focused, and ii. direction, which describes whether attention is focused internally or externally. These two dimensions create the four types of attention described in the model illustrated in Figure 2. Nideffer suggests that individuals vary greatly in their relative strengths and weaknesses in each area, and each person typically has one type of attention that is stronger than the others. EXTERNAL BROAD Assess Analyse Perform Rehearse NARROW INTERNAL Figure 2. Nideffer's Dimensions of Attention. Each of the four attentional abilities has its own strengths and weaknesses. The objective is for athletes to improve their strengths in all four areas and to develop the ability to shift from Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 24

25 one to another as the environment changes, especially under increasing pressure. It is when athletes rely heavily on their strength in one area under pressure, that it becomes a weakness. Types Of Attention The strengths and weaknesses of the four types of attention are presented below. Broad External Focus Strengths used to assess the external environmental and rapidly changing situations, able to assess tactical options effectively, may anticipate well. Weaknesses may be overloaded by external cues and distracted by irrelevant information (information overload). Examples Netball centre assessing tactical options prior to passing. Rugby fullback assessing whether to run, kick, or pass after taking a high ball. Broad Internal Focus Strengths used to analyse external information, used to process a lot of information and think of more than one thing at a time, able to analyse opponents strengths and weaknesses quickly and effectively. Weaknesses tendency to over-analyse situations and adversely affect performance, may miss important information due to being overloaded by internal thoughts and feelings, 'paralysis by analysis'. Examples: Badminton player analysing the last point to determine strengths and weaknesses of opponent. Tennis player missing a serve because he/she is too busy planning the return. Page 25 Coaching New Zealand 2002

26 External Assess lie of ball Assess hazards Hitting ball Broad Analyse shot required Analyse last shot Visualise shot Cue words Breathing to control arousal Narrow Internal Figure 3. Example of attentional tasks and shifts of attention for golfer hitting a tee shot. Narrow Internal Focus Strengths focuses on own thoughts and feelings, useful for controlling arousal prior to and during performance, self awareness, used for mental imagery. Weaknesses not sensitive to what is going on around you and fail to adjust to new information, may narrow attention too much, may 'freeze' and/or choke under pressure. Examples Swimmer assessing arousal and shaking out tension prior to the start of a race and visualising exploding from the blocks. Golfer worrying too much about a pressure putt and 'choking'. Narrow External Focus Strengths used to focus on one thing at a time, used to act and react to situations. Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 26

27 Weaknesses unable to react to more than one thing at a time, too rigid and may stick to the same response after it has stopped working. Examples focusing on the ball for a batter in cricket or softball, putting in golf, hitting the ball in tennis, etc. Aspects of Concentration There are different aspects of concentration which coaches need to be aware of. Attention Under Pressure During competition, when athletes are relaxed they are able to shift their attention effectively from one quadrant to another. However, when they are under pressure, their type of attention may be inappropriate and their ability to shift their attention is reduced. Generally, under pressure three things may happen to attention: i. Even before athletes are aware of the pressure, they begin to rely more heavily on their particular attentional strength. ii. As the pressure increases, attention often begins to narrow, and athletes lose their ability to attend to many things at once, eg. trying to keep up makes them feel rushed and overloaded. iii. As physical symptoms of stress develop (eg. increased heart rate, lump in throat, upset stomach) attention becomes internally focused. The athlete is less attentive to taskrelevant cues and the environment, and is more likely to make mistakes. As with other problems however, once the coach and athlete identify and confront the problem (eg. decreased ability to shift attention) it is possible to develop a solution and take action to eliminate the problem. Attentional Demands of Different Sports and Sports Skills Some sport situations require a fairly broad focus of attention, and athletes must be aware of several different attentional cues, eg. batter preparing to hit the ball needs to identify the gaps in the field. Other sport situations require a narrower focus, eg. as the batter faces the delivery or pitch, he/she needs to focus on the bowler's/pitcher's arm and the ball. In some situations, attention needs to be directed internally towards the athletes' own emotions and thoughts. On other occasions, athletes must concentrate on external factors, eg. the opponent and/or the ball. Page 27 Coaching New Zealand 2002

28 During competition, athletes need to be able to shift their attention from one focus to another, even though different sports require more of one type of attentional concentration than others. Example: Soccer A player receiving the ball uses a narrow external focus as she traps it, which must shift to a broad external focus as she looks around the field and assesses what to do next. Example: Golf Prior to hitting a shot, a golfer requires a broad external focus to take in the positions of hazards and course conditions. He shifts to a broad internal focus to recall how he played similar shots on previous occasions, what club he used and what the result was. Analysing all of this information, he selects a particular club and plans how to hit the shot. He shifts attention again to a narrow internal focus to control his arousal levels and mentally rehearse the shot. Finally, he shifts his attention again to a narrow external focus, concentrating on the ball as he addresses it and begins his backswing. When a coach tells athletes to concentrate, it is important he/she specifies what type of concentration is required so the athletes know what is expected of them. Attentional Characteristics are Trait-like and State-like It is easier for some athletes to meet the attentional demands of their sport than it is for others. Some of the differences seem to be learned, while others appear to be genetic and/or biological. The main differences (Nideffer, 1993) appear to be: i. Athletes have differing abilities for developing broad internal focus, ie. some athletes are more suited than others to analysing large amounts of information. ii. Some athletes appear to be better attuned to environmental (external) information than others, reading and reacting to other people more effectively. Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 28

29 iii. Other athletes are less easily distracted, being more capable of developing a narrow attention focus. Just as others are physically best suited to particular sports, some athletes are more attentionally suited. Their attentional strengths in one or more of the four categories makes it easier for them to get to the top of their sport. The role of the coach is to assist athletes who do not possess these strengths to recognise the attentional demands of their sport, and to identify their own relative attentional strengths and weaknesses. From this assessment, the coach will be able to help athletes develop and implement appropriate training programmes. Relationship between Arousal and Concentration As mentioned, attention is strongly linked with pressure. If athletes become over-aroused, their ability to achieve a broad external focus decreases and their decision-making and tactical ability also decreases. They lose their ability to make adjustments and fail to learn from their mistakes. When this occurs, coaches should give their athletes as little information as possible, as their ability to process information has deteriorated. When performance seems to be progressively deteriorating, and athletes seem unable to regain control without some form of outside assistance, we can infer they are 'choking'. It is possible to break the downward spiral associated with choking by eliminating feelings of excessive tension, reducing the number of distractions, and improving concentration ability. Coaches can help athletes to either ignore or re-interpret their physical feelings in a positive way, eg. "I'm ready". This will reduce tension levels and heart rate to 'normal' for the competitive situation (Nideffer, 1993). Teaching athletes to relax and then rehearse particular performance situations can help reduce their tendency to choke and improve the consistency of their performance. Training and Developing Concentration The techniques included here are not exhaustive and coaches need to be creative in developing their own programmes. We need to emphasise again that just as physical skills require practice to perfect them, mental skills also require practice if they are to be effective. For all of these concentration exercises, athletes should adopt a comfortable and relaxed position. Page 29 Coaching New Zealand 2002

30 Focusing and Refocusing in the Present It is important to focus on the 'now' rather than in the past or the future. Single thought focus: concentrate on one single idea for as long as possible. Video and computer games help train athletes to keep their thoughts in the present and provide a distraction from stressful events. Refocusing after mistakes: put the error aside until later and immediately focus on an external cue, eg. the ball, and an internal cue, eg. "keep your eye on the ball". Awareness Exercises Effective for developing the ability to switch from one focus of attention to another as environmental demands change. Focus on the specific features of an object related to your sport (narrow external), then use peripheral vision to become aware of other details within the room (broad external). Adopt a comfortable, relaxed position and focus on breathing, alternating between breathing normally and a deeper, slower breath (narrow internal). Extend your awareness to focus on specific sounds that may be present around you, identifying and labelling each sound (narrow external). Then focus on all sounds at once without attempting to label any of them (broad external). Self-talk Involves the use of positive affirmation to ensure athletes are appropriately focused when preparing for training or competition, eg. "I'm feeling fit and ready to go", "I feel relaxed and happy with my form". These may be presented on posters and displayed in changing rooms to help athletes concentrate on the affirmations at the appropriate time. Cue Words Help athletes to refocus when distracted or to maintain concentration, eg. "relax", "stay with it", "rhythmic movements". These words must be individualised to suit each athlete and their approach to their sport and to competition. Cue words should be task-relevant, and may emphasise the physical feelings of a good performance. The event may be broken down into logical parts or segments and cue words can be planned for any particular situation that might arise (eg. a 200m swimmer may segment his/her race into start, first lap, turn, second lap, turn, third lap, turn, last lap, last 15m, and finish). Appropriate cue words may be planned to help retain a task-relevant focus at these vital times. Coaching New Zealand 2002 Page 30

31 Response to Mistakes An opportunity to learn that helps athletes refocus after making a mistake. Quickly analyse why the error was made, mentally rehearse the skill again ensuring it is done correctly. Turns mistakes from a negative, emotion-disturbing experience into an opportunity for positive self-instruction which is effective in retaining confidence and self-esteem. Pre-competition and Competition Routines Important to achieving peak performance. Prepare and establish specific routines (covered earlier in this course). Routines must be appropriate to the demands of the sport and the environment, the learning stage of the athlete, and to the athlete's individual characteristics. Cue words should also reflect theses factors. Learn the routine by mentally practising it (visualisation), writing it down, displaying it in appropriate places, and by physically practising the routines in training sessions. Mental Rehearsal (Imagery) 'Playing the game' in your head prior to the actual event is effective in improving concentration and minimising distractions. Visualise the event in every way possible prior to the competition. May be practised in pairs with one athlete engaging in relaxation and mental rehearsal while the other provides distraction by any method except touch. Athletes may then be required to refocus after being distracted. Page 31 Coaching New Zealand 2002