The role of freight forwarders in global sourcing: an empirical study in the apparel industry

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1 The role of freight forwarders in global sourcing: an empirical study in the apparel industry Liang-Yun Wang The French National Institute for Transport and Safety Research 1. INTRODUCTION This research is based on a part of the author s PhD dissertation, which deals with the interactions between globalization of production systems and the evolution of the freight forwarding industry organizing the international transportation for manufacturing industries. In this article, we focused on the global sourcing of the apparel industry, a very highly globalized industry, to analyze the corresponding evolution which happened in the freight forwarding industry. We can distinguish three major actors in the structure of the apparel industry, which are distributors/retailers, intermediaries and s. As apparel industry is very organizationally fragmented, production and commercialization is separated. The distributors/retailers procure final products from s, sometimes with the help of intermediaries. Numerous researches suggest that the apparel industry is a buyer-driven industry 1, which implies that the buyers, i.e. distributors/retailers, are more powerful in the buyer-supplier relationship. As a labor intensive industry, history of global sourcing in the apparel industry can trace back to 1960s, and it accelerated since 1980s. Distributors/retailers seek to source lower price products abroad and transport the goods to the consumption market. At that time, Hong Kong and Taiwan were two important suppliers of clothes, but since 1990, China has become the first supplier in the world. Our fieldwork was conducted in these three regions to understand the buyers-suppliers relationship in the apparel industry. When global sourcing becomes an approach practiced by most distributors/retailers, it needs a lot of international transportation to ensure the supply. The freight forwarders serve as interface between manufacturing industries and transportation industries. They contact directly manufacturing industries clients and organize the international transportation between buyers and suppliers. We are curious about how the dominance of buyers in the apparel industry could influence the environment of freight forwarding industry. Large distributors/retailers usually work with international freight forwarders rather than domestic small-and-medium ones. We found that there was also concentration of cargo to several large international freight forwarders. The contract scale and work content are much more abundant for international freight forwarders. They develop their business with geographical expansion and large economic scope. The market and work content of domestic-oriented freight forwarders is shrinking considerably. Association for European Transport and contributors

2 2. METHOD We have reviewed the literature about the development history in the apparel industry and especially the importance of global sourcing in the system of apparel industry today. Field observation and interviews are the methods we relied on. Both the firms in the apparel industry and the freight forwarders are our objects of fieldwork. We have also interviewed several associations either in the apparel industry or in the transportation industry. The interview with firm representatives encompassed two series of questions, a semi-structured interview with a list of questions predetermined and an in-depth interview of open-ended questions. In the apparel industries, we have interviewed international distributors/retailers, independent stores, intermediaries, and s. Table1 shows their roles in the industry, nationality and scale of company. Although only two distributors of specialized chain stores (international brands) were interviewed, we could also know how the international retailers deal with their transportation activities by the interviews with intermediate agents who work for them. We had the opportunity to visit the factories and inventories to see the organization of tasks and to ask questions instantaneously. Table1. Firms interviewed in the apparel industry Role in the industry Nationality of company China France HK Taiwan UK USA Total Distributer/ specialised chain stores Distributer/ independant stores Intermediary 6 6 Producer/ several factories in different cities Producer/ only one factory 2 2 We liked to know how apparel firms manage the transportation activities inside of the firm. We have also got the information about their criteria to choose a cooperated freight forwarder, the service content of the freight forwarder, and how they evaluate their freight forwarders. We have interviewed 3 international freight forwarders with global dimension, one Swiss and two German; 5 regional freight forwarders whose clients locate mostly in Asia; 2 small freight forwarders based in Taiwan. We have enquired them about their clients profile and their key accounts. The questions asked comprise also about the services they offer to clients and how they evaluate the perspectives of their activity. Several questions asked to every firm could have a quantitative analysis, but we consider that the sample scale is too small to have statistic significance. Association for European Transport and contributors

3 3. A BRIEF HISTORY OF GLOBAL SOURCING IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY The figure 1 shows the trade amount of apparel products in the world since In the 1960s, the value of clothing trade was less than 5 millions US dollars while in 2006, the value is almost 200 millions US dollars. Since the mid eighties, the trade value rose even more dramatically. However, clothing consumption didn t increase accordingly. The rapid increase of apparel products was because of great shifts of production sites from original industrial countries to newly industrial countries where labor cost was relatively low (Dicken 2007). Figure1. The trade amount of apparel products in the world since thousands USD Year Source: CHELEM Database, CEPII We can see some major trends of production movements since 1950s and 1960s. Some productions were moved to Japan from United States and several European countries in this period. Later during 1970s and 1980s, Japanese companies sought cheaper labor cost and production was largely moved to South Korea, Taiwan and Hong Kong (Gereffi 1999). Afterward, China had implemented an open market reforms and attracted massive implantations of production with his abundant low cost labors. industry being a labor intensive industry is the best starting industry for a newly industrial country. Today, China is the first country on the clothing exportation list and exports one-third amount of apparel products in the world. Association for European Transport and contributors

4 Regionalization of production was also observed in this industry. For example, some Central American countries, e.g. Mexico, are an important production base of United States. Some North African and Eastern European countries formed also a production circle around Western European countries. Several figures show how popular the global sourcing is in the apparel industry. In 2000, the value of garment imported occupied an 85% market in UK, 82% in France, and almost 100% in Denmark and in Sweden (Palpacuer 2005). Several case of well-known brands such as GAP outsource in more than 50 countries; H&M has 21 production offices including 10 in Europe, 10 in Asia and 1 in Africa; Mango outsource 50% in China, some in Northern Africa(Eurostaf, 2002). In the structure of apparel industry, we can distinguish three different roles, distributors/retailers, intermediaries, and s (Figure 2). The functions of each one are quite segmented. They are linked by commercial contracts. The distributors/retailers are those who contacts directly final consumers, including department stores, supermarket and hypermarket, specialized chain stores, independent stores, mail orders and online shopping, etc. Previously, people often bought clothes in the small and medium independent stores. Since 1980s, the supermarket, department stores and specialized chain stores emerged. The market of local independent stores decreased gradually. To get the cheaper clothing products in a large amount, distributors/retailers sought to buy or make the products abroad. A lot of factors encouraged this trend. In the transportation side, the development of maritime transportation, especially the use of containers (Frement 2007), greatly raised the security and reliability of international goods transportation. Figure 2 Structure of apparel industry Direction of arrows: order instruction Independant Stores Supermarket/ Hypermarket Department Store Specialised chain stores Online shopping Distributors/Retailers Agent Importer exporter Intermediaries Contractor Contractor Contractor Subcontractor Subcontractor Subcontractor Subcontractor Producers Source: by the author (2008) Association for European Transport and contributors

5 Since the emergence of large retailers, they dominate the market of clothes distribution in most industrial countries (department stores, specialized chain stores and supermarket). In UK, top five companies occupied 33% market share in 2000, while 35% in France and 46% in Germany(Table 2). Like suggestions of some researches, the domination of large clothing s was terminated in 1980s (Courault 2005). Subsequently it is the distributors/retailers who give instructions in the apparel commodity chain, suggested as buyer-driven chain (Gereffi 1999). Table2. The market share of top companies in the apparel industry in 2000 Country Clothing Industry Share of top-five companies UK 33% France 35% Germany 46% Italy 25% Source: M.Dunford (2004) When production moved massively from Hong Kong and Taiwan to China, a lot of companies in Hong Kong become intermediaries between western buyers and Chinese s. Many Taiwanese companies moved their factories to China with their headquarters remained in Taiwan. China, Hong Kong and Taiwan have formed an integral production system to fulfill a full package supply, where the retailers ordering the final products don t have to intervene in the procurement of fabric and accessories. The transportation of materials is coordinated by s or intermediaries. To become the suppliers of large retailers, they should meet many strict criteria of retailers, such as product quality, working condition, etc. Retailers often keep very stable cooperation relationship with several main suppliers. 4. ORGANIZATION OF TRANSPORTATION AND LOGISTICS ACTIVITIES IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY In an international trade contract, Incoterms (international commercial terms) indicate the complexity of transportation process for the buyer and the supplier. In our interviews, all s expressed that they usually sell their goods with Free On Board (FOB) contracts. The freight forwarder and the carrier are chosen by the buyer and the buyer pay the fee since international maritime transportation. In practice, the seller is often told to deliver the goods to the warehouse of freight forwarder or carrier. We illustrate by figure 3 some examples of how fabric and garments are bought and sold with the use of Incoterms in contracts. We also indicated the physical movement of goods because the seller and the buyer in the contract are not necessarily the shipper and the consignee. The international transportation of these goods flows are usually organized by freight forwarders. Association for European Transport and contributors

6 Figure3. Incoterms and goods flows in the apparel industry Contract established between buyer and supplier Movement of goods from shipper to consignee Freight Forwarder (chosen by distributor) Freight Forwarder (chosen by distributor) (1) Textile FOB Distributor FOB Freight Forwarder (chosen by intermediary) Freight Forwarder (chosen by distributor) (2) Textile Distributor FOB Intermediary FOB To be negotiated Freight Forwarder (chosen by distributor) (3) Textile FOB Distributor Source: by the author (2008) In the first case, distributors/retailers buy fabrics from textile enterprises and the fabrics are sent directly to s. In the second case, intermediaries buy fabrics for the clothing production. The fabrics are sent to s and the final products are sent to distributors. The intermediaries organize all procedures of production and make sure it will be finished on time. The third case often happens in the full package outsourcing. Producers are responsible for all material procurement. In this case, s intend purchasing from local textile suppliers rather than buying materials abroad, sometimes even in the same industrial cluster. Hence, the local transportation depends on the negotiation in the contract. They might transport the goods by their own truck or by a contract transportation company. Our interviews reveals also that some firms have a division specialized on transportation and logistics and others may just have several employees who deal with transportation issues in the division like accounting or general services. No matter what scales of enterprises are, no enterprises deal with inbound international transportation themselves. Large firms might deal with outbound transportation directly with carriers if they sell the goods with Association for European Transport and contributors

7 Incoterms group C (CFR, Cost and Freight or CIF, Cost, Insurance, Freight). Since we are referring to outsourcing for procurement companies and most suppliers sell their goods with FOB contracts, then we can say that outsourcing of organizing the international transportation is the standard pattern in this condition. Usually, custom formalities are executed by freight forwarders, but it s not always the case. Sometimes freight forwarders accept to deal with custom formalities but they outsource this work to other forwarders specialized in custom formalities. The firms can also execute custom formalities themselves. It depends on regulations of each country. In several provinces of China, firms often accomplish their custom formalities with employees within the firm. When an enterprise looks for outsourcing abroad, freight forwarders might offer some information about outsourcing countries. With global network of freight forwarders, they can help their clients to succeed their procurement abroad. 5. IMPLICATIONS FOR FREIGHT FORWARDERS IN A GLOBALIZED INDUSTRIAL WORLD One may think that the freight forwarder works between buyers and suppliers and has an equal close relationship with buyers and suppliers. However, most freight forwarders are selected by either the buyer or the supplier but rarely decided by two parts. In the apparel industry, as what we indicated earlier, since final products are often sold in FOB contracts, the freight forwarder only has a contract relationship with the buyer but no contract relationship with suppliers. It means those who are the buyers will decide who are freight forwarders assigned and then influence the market share of the freight forwarding industry. Figure 4 illustrates the relationship among the buyer, the suppliers and the freight forwarder in a FOB clothing procurement contract. Suppliers are only responsible to deliver the goods to freight forwarders so that freight forwarders could consolidate all goods from all suppliers in the same region for one buyer. Association for European Transport and contributors

8 Figure4. Relationship among buyer, suppliers and freight forwarders in a FOB clothing procurement contract Freight forwarders Delivery of goods supplier supplier Contract relationship supplier supplier (Producers) Buyer Contract relationship supplier (Distributors/Retailers) Source: by the author (2008) According to our interviews, all international specialized chain stores work with international freight forwarders who have a global dimension. The service may comprise other logistics activities, such as inventory. There are also small and medium buyers in the apparel industry. There are no necessaries formal contracts between them and their freight forwarders. Their relationship seems more like partners based on the long-term cooperation experience and confidence in each other. Several small buyers work with same freight forwarders for years without contract. They may have two or three long term cooperated freight forwarders. Once things go smoothly, they hardly think about changing the freight forwarders. Although we said that international freight forwarders have more competitiveness in a global outsourcing industry. Working with small freight forwarders still has some advantages for small buyers. A small buyer will never be key account for international freight forwarders. The service of small freight forwarders could be more specific and flexible for small buyers. 6. CONCLUSION As multinational retailers dominate the apparel commodity chain, the role of international freight forwarders seems to become more and more important. Most large retailers choose to work with international freight forwarders in order to organize their global sourcing network. Some logistics activities could also be included in their outsourcing contract. Thus a multinational freight forwarder can involve more in the supply chain of enterprises and offer more value-added services. They might have privilege when negotiate with carriers and dominate transportation passageway. Under this situation, the work content of small and medium freight forwarders become more and more limited, either in the geographic scale side or in the functional side. The future of small and medium freight forwarders could be a Association for European Transport and contributors

9 worry when other industries have the same trend of so-called globalization. Domestic-oriented freight forwarders might have more local advantage than an international one. We saw that they are massively bought by international freight forwarders, e.g. Schenker and DHL, to help them acquire a new market. One suggestion for small-and-medium freight forwarders is to find their own niche market and target clients. Developing local logistics activities might be a good orientation to face the challenge and enlarge their service content. What we indicated in the article suggests the consequence of globalization on the freight forwarding industry. The dominance of international buyers in the apparel industry creates a favorable environment for the development of international freight forwarders. It implies that the structure of the manufacturing industry influence the structure of service industry, or more specifically, the structure of transportation service industry. However, the freight forwarding industry do not serves only one manufacturing industry. The apparel industry is only one client of freight forwarders, among numerous different industries. To know how far this hypothesis is valid in other industries, further researches in others manufacturing industries are needed. Bibliography Courault, B. (2005) Les PME de la filière textile habillement face à la mondialisation: entre restructurations et délocalisations, Revue de l IRES, 47:59-78 Dicken, P. (2007) Global Shift: Mapping the Changing Contours, SAGE, London Dunford, M. (2004) The Changing Profile and Map of the EU Textile and Clothing Industry, in: Faust, M., Voskamp, U. and Wittke, V. (eds.): European Industrial Restructuring in a Global Economy: Fragmentation and Relocation of Value Chains, Göttingen: SOFI, pp Eurostaf (2002) Le supply chain management dans le secteur de l habillement, Eurostaf, Paris Frément, A. (2007) le monde en boîtes : conteneurisation et mondialisation, synthèse INRETS n 53, Arcueil Gereffi, G. (1999) International trade and industrial upgrading in the apparel commodity chain, Journal of International Economics, 48 : Palpacuer, F. (2005) New Challenges for Developing Country Suppliers in Global Clothing Chains: A Comparative European Perspective, World Development, 33 (3) NOTES Association for European Transport and contributors

10 1 See Gereffi(1999) and subsequent writings. Association for European Transport and contributors

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