Scientific Thought INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE LABORATORY MANUAL FALL 2010

Transcription

1 Scientific Thought INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE LABORATORY MANUAL FALL

2 Scientific Thought INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE LABORATORY MANUAL FALL 2010 Name 10

3 Scientific Thought Contents Syllabus..3 Scientific Thought Urban and Rural Lake Ecology Urban and Rural Stream Ecology Grading Rubric...26 Ecosystem Preservation Urbanization and Land Use Planning...37 Human Dimensions in Environmental Issues Environmental Trial

4 Scientific Thought LABORATORY SYLLABUS Earth and Environmental Science I (ENVS 101L) Hobbs 223 Earth and Environmental Science Lab INSTRUCTORS Thomas Shahady, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Environmental Science Office Location: Hobbs 215 Office Telephone: shahady@lynchburg.edu Steve Day, Adjunct Instructor in Environmental Science Office Location: Environmental Laboratory Mr. Day is not located on campus so please make appointments to meet with him. welincswd@aol.com Jamey Pavey, Ph.D. Assistant Professor in Environmental Science Office Location: Hobbs 214 Office Telephone: pavey@lynchburg.edu Brooke Haiar, Ph.D. Assistant Professor in Environmental Science Office Location: Hobbs 220 Office Telephone: wilborne@lynchburg.edu Sue Cochrane, Adjunct Instructor in Environmental Science Office Location: Davis 09. Office Telephone: cochrane@lynchburg.edu Brian Kane, Adjunct Instructor in Environmental Science Office Location: Office Telephone: kane.b@lynchburg.edu 12

5 Scientific Thought COURSE RATIONAL: ENVS 101L is designed to teach students environmental science through experience. We will conduct field and laboratory exercises to provide scientific literacy and environmental understanding. It is essential that each student understand the scientific approach to environmental problems when completing written assignments. Assignments are graded equally on quality of answers and application of the scientific approach. Course Requirement: ENVS 101L is the laboratory component of the lecture course ENVS 101. This is a required course when enrolled in ENVS 101. If you are not enrolled in ENVS 101 lecture you will be dropped from this course. Your grade in this course is combined with your lecture grade. This course constitutes 25% of your environmental science grade. A student must enroll in both ENVS 101 and ENVS 101L. Failure to enroll will constitute a drop from lecture. Text A general laboratory notebook is required. The notebook is available in laboratory and must be purchased by each student. Dress For the field labs, you must dress according to conditions including appropriate footwear and protection from cold and wet weather. In some labs you will be required to wear boots and will be asked to work in water, woods, mud and/or soil. Check the syllabus outline for dress requirements. If you have any questions or concerns please ask your instructor. Due to changing weather weekly laboratory exercises may change. Every effort will be made to keep you informed of these changes. These changes are generally communicated to you through . It is the responsibility of each student to check you regularly and particularly on the day of your laboratory. If you have any questions check with your instructor. If you have any special health concerns/needs please notify your instructor. Laboratory Meeting Laboratory is scheduled to meet for 3 hours. Some laboratories are shorter than three hours and some are longer. Again, check the syllabus outline for length of laboratory. Please do not pester your lab instructor concerning the length of lab. Attendance Attendance in your assigned lab section is required. Upon entering the laboratory each student will be signed into the master sign-in sheet to gain credit for the lab. Failure to attend a laboratory section will result in a zero for the laboratory. In combined laboratory exercises one-half credit will be issued. 13

6 Scientific Thought Assessment Assessment of your performance in this course is primarily through written assignments. You must discuss any assessment issues with your assigned instructor. Other instructors cannot assist you with issues in your laboratory section. Assigned Work Assigned work in the course will be evaluated according to the following policy: 1. To receive full credit, work must be given to your assigned laboratory instructor at the beginning of the laboratory when the assignment is due. 2. Work must be given to your assigned laboratory instructor. Do not give your work to an instructor in a make-up lab. Your assigned laboratory instructor is not responsible for any work given to any other instructor. 3. Work completed in a make-up lab must be given to your assigned laboratory instructor at the beginning of your assigned laboratory not the make-up laboratory. 4. Each 24-hour delay from the due date and time an assignment is late will result in a deduction of 10% 5. If the assignment is not given to your laboratory instructor within ten (10) days of the due date and time a zero is recorded in the grade book. 6. Any issues with this policy should be addressed with Dr. Shahady and not your laboratory instructor. Assignment of Grades Upon return of your assignments questions may arise from answers given and correct answers suggested. Adjustment of credit on a disputed answer will be given according to the following policy. 1. Within one week of the return date of the assignment student notes question(s) of dispute. 2. Using the laboratory handout or other information, student writes explanation of answer explaining why credit is appropriate. 3. Explanation is due within one week of returned work. 4. After evaluating the explanation instructor determines if answer warrants credit. Decision will be returned to student with either a written or verbal explanation. 5. If student is not satisfied with outcome, a meeting can be set up to discuss the issue. In the meeting the student may request another instructor from the environmental science faculty assist our decision-making. 6. Once a suitable outcome is decided upon the grade is final 7. If a question is not raised within one week of the return of an assignment the grade is final. Honor Code Cheating is not tolerated. Check with your instructor if you have any concerns that arise throughout the term or do not fully understand college definitions for cheating such as plagiarism. Be familiar with the Lynchburg College Honor Code in the Hornet Student Handbook. 14

7 Scientific Thought Letter Grade / Percent Equivalent Letter Grade Percent Equivalent Letter Grade Percent Equivalent Letter Grade Percent Equivalent A B C A B D A C D B C D and below is an F Weighted Grading for Each Laboratory Scientific Communication 10% Water Quality Experimentation Scientific Write-up- 40% Bibliography 5% Introduction 5% Rough Draft 5% Final Paper 25% Ecosystems (two labs) - 20% Urbanization (two labs) 20% Human Dimensions 10% LABORATORY SCHEDULE Please be aware that this schedule must be flexible due to weather problems or unforeseen problems with outside resource people. During this semester, lab sessions may take place in the field or in the laboratory. Please note that the topics for laboratory exercises do not necessarily match the sequence in the lecture schedule. This is because the field labs must run in the early fall when the weather is still warm enough for reasonable comfort. Because of travel time in some of the field labs, there are occasions when more time than the usual three-hour period will be needed. For those persons who have sports or work schedules that conflict with this situation, you will need to make arrangements to accommodate to the extra time needed to complete the lab. Those labs that may use 3+ hours are noted with an ** Students with Disabilities The College will make reasonable accommodations for persons with documented disabilities. Students should immediately contact the Support Services Coordinator located in the Academic Advising Office (extension 8419) to make arrangements for their accommodations and faculty notification. 15

8 Scientific Thought Lab Week Description Location Comments of: 1 Aug 30 Introduction. Scientific Environmental Work with Scientific Paper inside Communication Lab 2 Sept 6 Urban Lake Ecology College Lake May get wet and muddy. Will use waders so dress appropriately. Scientific Write up Due. 3 Sept 13 **Rural Lake Ecology Claytor Nature Center (1.3 hour round trip) May get wet and muddy. Will use waders so dress appropriately. Bibliography Due. 4 Sept 20 Urban Stream Ecology and Pollution Use of EPT Taxa Survey 5 Sept 27 **Rural Stream Ecology and Pollution Use of EPT Taxa Survey 6 Oct 4 Writing Environmental Research Papers 7 Oct 11 No Labs all Week Fall Break Lynchburg (Target Shopping Area) Claytor Nature Center (1.3 hour round trip) Environmental Lab May get wet and muddy. Will use waders so dress appropriately. Introduction Due May get wet and muddy. Will use waders so dress appropriately. Optional - Revisions Due. Sign up for time to meet with your instructor Rough Draft Due. Do not attend labs Monday, Tuesday or Wednesday. Oct 18 Ecosystem Preservation Lynchburg Be prepared for a hike please bring a jacket and wear hiking shoes. Final Paper Due. 8 Oct 25 **Ecosystem Preservation 9 Nov 1 Urbanization Brownfield and Environmental Justice 10 Nov 8 Urbanization Greenfield and related issues Blue Ridge Parkway Lynchburg and Surrounding Area Lynchburg and Surrounding Be prepared for a hike please bring a jacket and wear hiking shoes. Dress appropriately for weather - Wear Shoes or Boots. Ecosystem Questions Due. Dress appropriately for weather - Wear Shoes or Boots Area 11 Nov 15 Human Dimensions On Campus This is an indoor lab on campus and will be provided as a handout. Urbanization Questions Due. Nov 22 No Labs all Week Thanksgiving Break 12 Nov 29 Environmental Trial Environmental Lab Dec 6 Assignments, Evaluation and Makeup Environmental Lab Entire lab inside. Human Dimensions Questions Due 16

9 Scientific Thought Reading And Thinking Scientifically 17

10 Lake Ecology Scientific Communication Thinking Scientifically Science is organized knowledge Objectives: 1. To understand how science is communicated, 2. To understand how science is conducted, 3. Begin writing scientifically. Communicating Scientifically Science is primarily communicated through written papers and seminars. These papers are written in a specific format. This format may vary slightly between publications yet the overall structure is consistent. Review the following structure making certain you understand each of the following sections found in scientific communication. Title Describes the work and findings. Attention must be given to a good title to encompass the work and entice the reader to read the paper. Example: Impact of Construction Site Run-off on Water Quality and Macroinvertebrate Composition in Virginia Piedmont Streams Abstract This section provides a summary of the work, methods and findings. It is very concise (less than 250 words) giving the reader a quick understanding of the study. Example: Sediment pollution is an increasing and persistent problem plaguing our nations streams, rivers and lakes. A major contributor to this problem particularly in the southeastern United States is sediment run-off from non-compliant construction sites. In this study we developed a scale to measure compliance of active construction sites along several streams in central Virginia. Above and below each construction site we sampled chemical water quality and macroinvertebrate densities. We found that non-compliant construction sites increased sediment loading and decreased chemical water quality in adjacent streams. Additionally, aquatic insect populations showed an initial taxonomic shift from sediment intolerant species to sediment inhabiting species with increasing sediment pollution. Later, as sediment pollution decreased further down a stream segment, we observed a severe decline of all species. Based upon our evidence, we concluded that non-compliant construction activities contribute directly and indirectly to declines in water quality and macroinvertebrate densities. 17

11 Lake Ecology Introduction This section gives the background material to the problem you were investigating. It should include background information from your laboratory handouts and references from the library, textbooks and online journals. The reader must understand the background of the study. Here is an example of an opening paragraph to an introduction: The number one pollutant to many urban watersheds is sediment (EPA 1980). Much of this sediment pollution comes directly from urban development. Urbanization refers to the development of a watershed that involves road and construction building, which is the change of land use from rural to residential and industrial. Kemp and Spotila (1996) found urbanization increases impermeable surfaces, the accumulation of toxic substances and increases in erosion and runoff from land disturbance. The transport of sediments and nutrients has increased in many watersheds due to agriculture, urbanization and forestry practices (Soranno et. al. 1996). Notice several aspects of this opening paragraph. First, it introduces the reader to the problem of study. The study here deals with sediment pollution. The reader is introduced to the idea that sediment is a pollutant and urbanization contributes to this problem. Secondly, ideas used from other work are referenced in a specific manner. EPA published a report in 1980 indicating sediment pollution is a number one pollutant to urban watersheds. Kemp and Spotila published work in 1996 detailing the increase in impermeable surface and toxic substances with urbanization. Additionally, Soranno and several other authors in 1996 attributed sediment and nutrient runoff to land use practices. The writer here gives each of the authors credit for there findings. The introduction concludes with a statement reflecting the approach taken. For your work this will be hypotheses tested. Use of references in the body of the paper. The use of information from other work follows a very simple format in scientific writing. The author or authors are mentioned followed by the date of publication. This can be accomplished in two ways. First, the author and date can be put at the end of the sentence. For example - he number one pollutant to many urban watersheds is sediment (EPA 1980). Or the authors may be 18

12 Lake Ecology incorporated into the sentence with the date in parentheses. For example - Kemp and Spotila (1996) found urbanization increases impermeable surfaces, the accumulation of toxic substances and increases in erosion and runoff from land disturbance. Secondly, a specific format must be followed when quoting an author. There are three options: a single author, two authors and three or more authors. When quoting a single author use the authors name followed by the date. Example - (Miller 2006). When quoting two authors use both authors followed by the date. Example (Miller and Smith 2000). When quoting three of more authors use the first authors name followed by the words et. al. Example (Miller et. al. 2000). Never use page numbers! Pay attention to this format. Methods describe the methods you used to conduct your experiment. This section must be written in a manner that allows another student to repeat your experiment. Pay close attention to details and write it in a way that is understandable. You should include information about any equipment you used, the actions you took, and the rationale behind the methods you chose to employ. Example Two streams in the Piedmont Virginia region of the Black Water Creek Watershed were sampled. The two streams, Dreaming Creek and Rock Castle Creek were both approximately 2 nd 3 rd order streams. They were chosen due to the fact that they were located in an urbanized (> 50% developed) watershed with sites located upstream from the open construction sites in which we were able to test Grab samples preserved to a ph less than two were collected and brought back to the lab for Total Phosphorus and Total Dissolved Solid testing. Each sample was analyzed using methods described in Standard Methods (2000). Results Your results are often a very difficult section to write for a beginning science student. This section describes your findings without providing any interpretation of those findings. The interpretation of your findings is reserved for the discussion section. This section should include the graphs, tables and any analysis you have performed. You must explain what the data shows but not what the data means. A results section MUST include text. Do not just paste in your tables and figures. You must explain what they show. Example All of the sites along Dreaming Creek had significant increases in phosphorus (Figure 1). There was also a noticeable decrease in the amount of dissolved oxygen (mg/l), along with a decrease in the percent of dissolved oxygen. Compared with the other sites (Table 2), there was a predominant increase in the conductivity levels. Overall, Dreaming Creek ph was 5.6 which is well below the ph of 8.2 found in the other creeks studied. 19

13 Organisms per square meter Lake Ecology Notice several things here. When a conclusion is drawn a corresponding figure, table or data is used to support that conclusion. Conclusions cannot be reached without supporting data. Additionally, the author does not interpret the findings here. While Dreaming Creek had increased phosphorus levels the reasons for the increase or impacts are not speculated upon. This is very important to remember. Use of Tables and Figures The use of tables and figures is a key component in communicating science. Each must be labeled and affixed to the back of the paper or embedded within the body of the paper. Each table or figure you include MUST be referred to in the text of the paper. DO NOT include a table or figure without referring to it! Without a label they cannot be referenced in the body of the paper, so be sure to number and label each. Additionally, each figure or table must have a title. The title provides the reader with essential information to understand the figure or table. For tables, the label and title should appear above the table (as in the example below). For figures (maps, graphs, charts, etc.), the label and title should appear below the figure. Examples Table 2 Phosphorus and Nitrogen Concentrations in Sampled Streams. All measurements are in mg/l. Stream Phosphorus Nitrogen Dreaming Creek Rock Castle Creek Above DC-1 DC-2 DC-3 Below Figure 2 - Changes in Sediment Dwelling Macroinvertebrates in Dreaming Creek. First Bar Represents Baetidae, the Second Bar Hydropsyche and the Third Bar Elimidae. Each Bar on the Graph Shows Transition from Above the Construction Sites Through Each Site and Below our Study Site. 20

14 Lake Ecology Discussion This section interprets your findings. Explain your results. Use literature such as books, journals and lab handouts to determine whether your findings are consistent or deviate from others. Use that information to discuss how your study has advanced science. The same rules for referencing authors apply here. Example The change in water quality in the study streams suggests disturbance from poorly managed sites is degrading water quality. This is evidenced from the large increases in phosphorus which Soranno et. al. (1996) found directly correlate with soil erosion and impervious surface. This increase in phosphorus may have detrimental effects on aquatic life and possibly interfere with the main food source for many small invertebrates (Waters 1995). Notice how this paragraph is written and how study data is incorporated into findings. First the observed change in water quality is related to increased phosphorus. This is not a finding from the study but instead a inference from previous work such as Soranno. Secondly, this information is then related to soil erosion further suggesting to the reader that soil erosion is causing the problem found in these creeks. Thirdly, the author again speculates that this is causing detrimental effects on aquatic life similar to the findings of Waters. To properly communicate science the author must have some knowledge of the area of study and some ability to speculate on the significance of the findings. References It is very important to include only the references used in your paper. It is of even greater importance to follow the proper guidelines when listing references. The format may change depending upon the journal a scientist publishes in. You are required to follow the following format. For a Book cite author, date, title and publisher: Miller, G. T Living in the Environment. Brooks/Cole Publishing. New York. Edited Book Author, Date, Title, Book Title, Editors, Publisher Kimmel, B. L., O.T. Lind and L.J. Paulson Reservoir primary production. In: Reservoir Limnology. K.W. Thornton, B.L. Kimmel and F.E. Payne Editors. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. For a Journal Article cite author, date, title, journal volume and page numbers: Single Author: 21

15 Lake Ecology Stiedmuler, J.F The morality of pollution permits. Environmental Ethics 15: Multiple Authors Ball, S. & R. L. Baker Predator-induced life-history changes: Antipredator behavior costs or facultative life-history shifts? Ecology 77: McCauley, E., Murdoch, W.W., Nisbet, R.M. & Gurney, W.S.C The physiological ecology of Daphnia: development of a model of growth and reproduction. Ecology 71: All authors must be cited. In today s lab we will spend time in lab reading and analyzing a scientific paper. Using the worksheet in your lab manual, begin reading the paper and answering the questions. You may work in pairs at your lab table. 1. It is each student s responsibility to read and answer the questions. Answers must be typed and submitted at the beginning of your next lab meeting. Reading Worksheet 1. Read the Title. a. Describe in your own words what your think the paper is about. b. After reading the paper now discuss the adequacy of the title. 2. Read the Abstract. a. Describe this study in your own words. 3. Read the Introduction a. How often are references used? Count the references. b. Summarize the background of this study. What does the author present on the current state of knowledge? c. What are the hypotheses of this study. What are the authors investigating? 4. Read the Methods a. Summarize the approach taken by the authors. How will they collect data? 5. Read the Results a. How many figures are used? b. How many graphs are used? c. Are the figures and graphs referenced in the results? How often? d. Describe the major findings. 6. Read the Discussion a. How many references are cited? b. Explain how the major findings you described for the results section are explained here in the discussion. c. Was the hypotheses accepted or rejected. Explain. 7. Examine the References a. How many references are cited? 22

16 Lake Ecology b. Are the references predominantly books or journals? c. Find three references that you would read for additional information on this topic. Explain why you would read these references. 8. Questions due at beginning of your next lab period. 23

17 Lake Ecology Urban & Rural Lake Ecology: Impact of Urbanization 24

18 Urbanization Urban & Rural Lake Ecology: Impact of Urbanization "The frog does not drink up the pond in which he lives" Objectives: 1. To become familiar with the characteristics of an urban lake ecosystem. 2. To sample and test some of the conditions of an urban lake ecosystem which influences inhabiting organisms. 3. To practice some methods of sampling of the organisms in an urban lake ecosystem. 4. To survey some of the organisms of the urban lake ecosystem. 5. To compare and contrast the conditions in an urban and rural lake ecosystem. INTRODUCTION The lake ecosystem is one of the most distinctive types of ecosystems known and one that has well-defined physical limits. Several life zones exist in a typical lake. These zones are the littoral, pelagic or limnetic and profundal or benthic zones. The littoral zone is the shallow margin usually limited in width by the outer limit of rooted aquatic plants. In this zone are a large variety of organisms, typically the rooted plants, a wide variety of aquatic insects and small fishes. The pelagic zone is the deep, open water of the lake. Phytoplankton (free-floating plants), zooplankton (free-swimming invertebrates) and larger fish dominate this zone. Understanding the physical and chemical characteristics of the pelagic zone is important. During the warmer months water temperature decreases with depth. The water separates into an upper warmer layer called the epilimnion and a cooler, lower layer called the hypolimnion. The existence of these two distinctive layers is called stratification. Oxygen, temperature and ph change in each of the layers. The benthic or profundal zone is the bottom of the lake. Worms, insect larvae and some species of fish (ex. Catfish) live in this zone. Often in eutrophic lakes, the benthic zone is deprived of oxygen during the summer months. Only specialized organisms with hemoglobin can survive in this zone. IMPACT OF SEDIMENT ON LAKE ECOSYSTEMS The water quality of a lake is influenced by activity in its watershed. As we examined last week, the watershed for College Lake contains many land disturbing activities. The water quality of any lake is degraded when we allow increased levels of sediments and nutrients to drain into these lakes. These conditions can cause prolific weed growth, decreased oxygen levels, changes in species of aquatic plants and animals and even fish kills. Fish habitat is destroyed, fish eggs are smothered and other aquatic animals, such as worms and clams, cannot live in the benthic zone. Toxic contamination is introduced when sediment-laden runoff transports chemicals, such as pesticides and herbicides, from land into lake waters. Adverse 37

19 38 Urbanization health effects on fish and wildlife result from bioaccumulation of toxic chemicals in the food chain. The aesthetic beauty of the lake is compromised. Swimming opportunities and other water-based recreational opportunities are impaired. Several remedies exist for this problem. Often, lakes are dredged. Dredging is a process of removing accumulated sediment from the bottom of a lake restoring the lake bottom and original size and depth of the lake. The dredging and disposal of sediment is very expensive. Additionally, dredging alters ecological conditions and can potentially resuspend toxic substances during the dredging process. The construction of artificial wetlands or sedimentation basins above the lake help filter sediments before they reach the lake. This is effective but is easily overloaded by excessive sediment. The most effective method preventing sedimentation in lakes is to prevent it from running off disturbed areas. HYPOTHESES TESTING During class, develop some possible hypotheses to test. SAMPLING THE LAKES During this laboratory we will examine, measure and test various components of an urban and a rural lake ecosystem. You will use the data collected to accept or reject the hypotheses through a comparison of urban and rural lakes. A rejected or accepted hypothesis must be based on the data collected. Students will be assigned into teams for collection of data and organisms. Even though all students will not do all tests, each student must be familiar with the procedures and equipment used. An effort will be made to demonstrate the rudiments, but it is the student's responsibility to learn the complete procedural methods as they are used in lab. It is each student s responsibility to acquire the data from each team at the end of lab. Sampling the Lakes Pelagic Zone Oxygen and Temperature: Use a thermometer to determine the temperature of the air. Use the oxygen and temperature probe to collect a profile of temperature and oxygen from the top of the lake to the bottom. Note the depths each measurement is taken. Determine the depth of the epilimnion. The epilimnion ends when the water temperature change is greater than one degree per meter. Calculate the percent saturation, which is an index of dissolved oxygen related to maximum of solubility at some temperature of the sample using the method described by your instructor. Visibility: A disk-like device, the Secchi Disc is lowered into the water to determine the limit of visibility. This is used as a rough approximation of the depth of light penetration. The procedure is simply to: a) lower the disc slowly into the water until it disappears and record that depth. b) lower slightly and then raise the disc until it just reappears and record that depth. Calculate the average of the two records and this becomes the "Secchi Disc Visibility.

20 Urbanization ph or hydrogen ion concentration: Using a water sampler empty a sample of water in a container and test it with a ph meter. Note the depth the water sample was taken and record the ph. Compare your results with the oxygen and temperature profile to determine if your measurements are in the hypolimnion or epilimnion. Littoral Zone: Plants: Some organisms are best collected by direct observation. One example is the rooted and emergent plants. Look about and estimate the number of plants in the water within a rectangle along a 3-meter length of bank by 1 meter into the lake. Document how many and what kinds of plants you found. Insects and Small Fish: Insects and small fish live among the rooted plants throughout the littoral zone. Use the hand nets and the small seine to collect these organisms. Your instructor will demonstrate the use of the equipment. Record both the number and different types of insects and fishes you find. Fish should be measured along with counting and identification. Week I Assignment Research the topic of water quality and urbanization. Use your book, materials in the library and reference articles posted on Blackboard. Read and summarize five references. The references should be cited properly check proper citation in this manual. Week II Assignment Now you have tested the lakes in the urban environment. It is important to review the following: 1) What hypothesis are you testing in this study? 2) What data is being collected and how will it help to support or disprove the hypothesis? 3) Why is this hypothesis an important one to explore? 4) What topics should be discussed in the introduction? Where do you plan to find information on these topics? After review you should feel prepared to write your introduction section. Include the five references you summarized for week I. Your introduction is due at the beginning of your next laboratory period. 39

21 Urbanization Urban & Rural Stream Water Quality 40

22 Urbanization Urban & Rural Stream Water Quality "Only when the last tree is cut; only when the last river is polluted; only when the last fish is caught; only then will they realize that you cannot eat money." Objectives: 1. To compare water quality in urban and rural streams using arthropod species diversity indices. 2. To compare physical and chemical parameters in urban and rural streams. 3. To answer and compare hypotheses concerning pollution effects on streams. Introduction: A stream is a habitat that demands special adaptations for its inhabitants. Moving water can pick up plants and animals and carry them downstream unless there is a mechanism, which can resist or function against this tendency. Gas exchange and other systems are specially modified to work in the aquatic habitat. Aquatic organisms are continually exposed to variations in physical conditions such as temperature and chemical composition of water. General Directions: During this lab, we will collect and examine aquatic macroinvertebrates to assess the water quality of a stream. We will be transported to a stream and each student will wear waders and collect macroinvertebrates. Students will work together to identify and record the macroinvertebrates collected. At the end of the laboratory, we will exchange the information collected and it will be posted on the web site. Each student will use the information collected this week and next week to compare and reach a conclusion on each of the following hypotheses. Hypotheses: During class we will generate hypotheses to test. Sampling the Streams During this laboratory we will examine, measure and test various components of an urban and a rural stream. You will use the data collected to accept or reject the hypotheses through a comparison of urban and rural lakes. A rejected or accepted hypothesis must be based on the data collected. It is each student s responsibility to acquire the data from each team at the end of lab. Dissolved Oxygen: Oxygen is an essential gas for all plants and animals in the stream and its quantity in the stream is an important chemical component of water. An important consideration is that water can dissolve oxygen at a much less concentration than that found in air. Also, as the water temperature and/or altitude increases, there is a decreasing capability to dissolve oxygen. Follow the instructions given by your instructor for measuring dissolved oxygen in the streams using a meter. Temperature: Temperature is a very important component of freshwater ecosystems such as the stream. Temperature influences the growth, movement and behavior of many aquatic organisms. Temperature influences the concentration of oxygen in the stream and rates of transformation for many chemicals in water. 41

23 Urbanization Macroinvertebrates: One of the most important and useful procedures to determine habitat evaluations of streams is through the sampling and analysis of macroinvertebrate (mostly insects and similar-sized animals) communities. Since these organisms live in the habitat for long periods, they more accurately reflect overall habitat quality than do chemical tests that may only detect transient variations. The methodology for sampling below is modified from various sources. There is no single uniformly accepted procedure, and various government and private agencies have their own particular set of protocols. The methods below involve the use of a "D-frame" net for capturing dislodged organisms during a two minute "kick" session. Stream bottom must consist of at least one of: boulders, rubble, gravel; but not sand, silt, clay or bedrock (see below for definitions). Depth must be less than 1m and the current velocity should be at least 1.6 ft./second. These methods are designed to be standardized from site to site for quantitative determination of habitat quality. Selection of site for sampling: Preferably locate a riffle where there are rocks and other debris on the stream bottom that make good retreats for a large variety of organisms to find shelter. Ideally, there will be a flow between two big rocks that "funnels" the flow behind it into a narrow channel. Set the bag of the net behind this funnel so that much of the upstream water flows into it. Position one foot near the net bag and use the other foot to vigorously kick and stir up the sediment/rocks upstream within range of comfortable reach so that the dislodged organisms flow into the net bag. If needed, you can use your hands to rub large rocks clean of attached organisms before removal from the sampling area. This procedure should be timed for two minutes. Within this reach, you should make four such subsamples that can be combined into a single container. Make sure that you record the number of replicate subsamples taken. Analysis: Macroinvertebrates are those invertebrates which are found inhabiting the bottoms of a lake or stream and which are generally large enough to be seen and identified with the naked eye or a low-power dissecting microscope. They may be attached to the substrate, crawling freely over it, or burrowing within the soft sediments. They comprise an important part of the biota of the stream and contribute to the food web and to the transfer of materials and energy through this ecosystem. In a practical sense, they are important indicators of stresses on the freshwater habitat which pollution can impose. Thus, pollution studies put a great emphasis on a biological assessment with the macroinvertebrates playing an important role in the analysis. The particular advantage of using macroinvertebrates is that they stay in the water through several months, throughout the year, and even longer in some cases. Therefore they are subject continuously to stream conditions, including stresses, over a long period and thus are better indicators of the stresses than are grab samples used for chemical analysis. This exercise is intended to acquaint you with some of the techniques used in the water quality laboratory analysis of macroinvertebrates through the examination of collections acquired by the kick methods. The most difficult aspect of this process for a beginner is the problem of identification of the organisms. Identification to species is the best procedure, but is impractical for our purposes. 42

24 Urbanization Procedure for Sorting Collections: 1. Dump all the contents from a field-collected sample of macroinvertebrates into a white pan. 2. Sort the invertebrates within the while enameled pan into groups of similar types and place into small containers as directed. 3. Use the key to major freshwater taxa to identify your various types of organisms. Key all of the species in the field before leaving the stream site and record your results. Species Diversity: Species diversity combines two aspects of community composition of communities: species richness (number of species) and species evenness (relative abundance of species). Diversity indices are used in analysis of water quality because it has been observed that disturbed or stressed communities are typically less diverse than more stable communities. Calculate the diversity index of each stream using the following equation: N(N-1) N 2 = N 1 (n 1-1) N=total number of all specimens of all species N 1 =number of individuals of a given species N 2 =diversity index Let s assume you collected some data on biodiversity from a lake. You found 5 different species, with the following abundances: Species 1 10 Species 2 5 Species 3 2 Species 4 2 Species 5 3 The value of N would be N=22 N 1 for species one would be 10 Plugging into the formula above would give 22(22-1) N 2 = (10-1)+5(5-1)+2(2-1)+2(2-1)+3(3-1) 462 N 2 =

25 Urbanization 120 N 2 =3.85 The indices increase from a value of 1.00 to infinity where 1.00 represents a community with only one species and infinity a community in which every individual belongs to a different species. EPT Assessment involves a procedure, which allows a worker to sample a stream, and through analysis of only three orders of insects, Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera make a conclusion on the water quality of that stream. This method focuses on three important insect orders that are relatively well known in terms of their taxonomy and their sensitivity to stress. Well-documented studies with these insects show that their presence in a stream is indicative of the stream quality and degree of stress. Being able to focus on just these insects makes it far easier for a technician to do a relatively quick analysis of the level of stress in a stream. Simplified EPT Method (Developed by the Save Our Streams program of the Isaac Walton League.): This procedure is a modified and simplified form of the standard EPT and was designed for ordinary citizens to use, with a little training, in assessing the quality of streams. The main goal is to help these people in their grassroots efforts to improve the quality of the streams in their local area. Pick out the immatures that belong to these same orders; Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies), and Trichoptera (caddisflies), and place them into separate vials with labels. The analysis of stream quality is as follows: Quality Excellent Good Fair Poor Indicator organisms Stoneflies, Mayflies and Caddisflies present. Mayflies and Caddisflies present. Stoneflies are absent. Caddisflies are present. Stoneflies and Mayflies are absent. All three groups are absent. Week III Assignment Revise work returned by your instructor. Week IV Assignment Write a rough draft of your paper. Sign up for individual session with your instructor during next weeks laboratory period. 44

26 Urbanization ENVS 101 L Guidelines for Written Lab Reports In order for science to be effective it must be communicated. Essentially, the final step of the scientific process is communication. To teach each of you science we are requiring a scientific report. This report is designed to introduce you to the methods scientists used to communicate. To require you to write reports as rigorous as required by scientific journals is beyond the scope of this course. However, we expect you to communicate your findings in a scientific format. This involves interpretation of your data and background research. Use of References: You are expected to site a minimum of five references in this paper. Start with the lab notebook. It has some background information. The proper citation for the notebook is: Shahady, TD Environmental science laboratory manual. Lynchburg College, Lynchburg Va. Next use you book and any other texts you may find in the library. Check your laboratory notebook for proper citation of books. Thirdly use journal articles. Links to many relevant journal articles are on the course web page. Go to the environmental science web page and follow the links from Professor Shahady s web listing. Read these and use the findings to support your paper. Remember to cite any of these journal articles properly as the citation is in a different format than the books. INTRODUCTION: Explain issues surrounding water pollution. How do urban areas impact water quality? What is known concerning this issue? How is lake sampling different than stream sampling? How does pollution affect each of these systems? What are the hypotheses you are testing? Include any references and background material to support what you are talking about. METHODS: Describe how we measured water quality. What type of equipment did we use? Was it calibrated before use? Were the measurements repeated for accuracy? Why or why not? How did we collect aquatic life? Did you use keys for identification? If so, make a proper reference. How did you determine aquatic diversity did you use an index? Put the index formula in this section. Include any formula used in the calculation. How did you determine overall water quality of each system? Explain your rationale. 45

27 Urbanization RESULTS: Examine all of your collected data. As a scientist you then decide how to best show your results. For many of you tables are a good presentation technique. Some of you may want to express the data with graphs. You must decide on your presentation technique. To do this you need to use a spreadsheet such as Excel. Excel is available on school computers. Your laboratory instructors can assist you with creation of graphs using Excel. You determine how you wish to express your results. Remember to label and then reference each in the text part of your paper. Unlabeled figures and tables are meaningless! Your results must include a narrative explanation of your findings referencing the tables and/or graphs you have created. Tables and graphs should be pasted into the text near the point they are first referenced. If you have questions again ask your instructors. Section should include this information. Were there differences in measured parameters among all the sites tested? Did we find pollution impacts? Did we find impacts from urbanization? Explain this to the reader without an interpretation of why the changes exist. The interpretation belongs in the discussion. This is not a lengthy section in text but must be written to explain your results. DISCUSSION Write your discussion to interpret your findings. Include other references such as a study that found similar results to yours. This strengthens you arguments in your discussion. Many, many references exist pertaining urbanization impacts upon water quality. Often, you will find the insertion of references increases your points of discussion. We want well thought out and reasoned arguments for your findings. Explain the differences in water quality between the sites we sampled. What is the significance of those tested sites? Why did we pick urban and rural sites to test? What are the measured differences and what influences those differences? Summarize how this contributes to your understanding of water quality in urban and rural settings. You should answer the question What is the impact of urbanization on water quality based on my results and what I found from my references REFERENCES The most important thing to remember here is to definitely include this section. Correctly cite all of your references used in the paper. You will be graded according to your attention to detail in this section. Minimum Requirements Paper length should be from 8-10 pages including graphs and tables. Text for your report should be 6-8 pages in length. We are looking for a well-written scientific paper. All papers must include at a minimum of five references. Your textbook or the laboratory notebook provide good references. Your paper must include 3-5 tables or graphs. Better attention to detail, more tables, graphs and references improve your paper. 46

28 Urbanization Study the grading rubric on the following page. It contains all of the elements we are looking for and is used when grading your paper. Close attention to all sections of this rubric are required. Additionally, this is a project that takes considerable time and effort. Data must be analyzed and synthesized. Your references must be understood for inclusion into your paper. This project constitutes 40% of your total lab grade. Please contact your instructor if you have any questions or concerns. 47

29 Urbanization Scientific Paper Grading Rubric Name Element Criteria Score (0-5) Introduction (20%) Methods (10 %) Results (25 %) Discussion (25 %) References (10 %) Format (10 %) Total 1. Introduction describes purpose and objective of the exercise. Includes prior knowledge of subject. 2. Reference cited and cited properly. 3. Tells why we conducted exercises. 4. The introduction concludes with a statement reflecting the experiment and hypotheses. 1. Section describes use of equipment. 2. Section describes all methodologies used. 3. Section describes calculations and data manipulation. 1. Section includes figures and/or tables. 2. Graphs and/or tables labeled and explained. 3. Explanations include descriptions of data and manipulation of data. Described in sentences. 4. Section includes descriptions of all data. 1. Section interprets the findings. Hypotheses accepted or rejected. 2. Section speculates on application of data. Results compared to expectations. 3. Sources of error listed 4. Reference cited and cited properly. 1. Section includes all references cited in the paper. 2. Books cite author, date, title and publisher. 3. Journal articles cite author, date, title, journal volume and page numbers. 1. Paper divided into sections with headings 2. Paper neat and free of typographical mistakes 3. Paper contains relevant title Grade 5-point rating scale for assignment evaluators: Criteria displayed at a superior level. Indicates excellent overall use of element. 4- Criteria displayed at an above average level. Use of element as to enhance the paper. 3- Criteria displayed at a satisfactory level. Use of element meeting the minimum standard. 2- Criteria displayed at a below average level. Element does not meet the minimum standard. 1- Criteria very poorly displayed or not displayed at all. Element strongly detracts from the paper. 0- Missing element Criteria not displayed 48

30 Urbanization Ecosystem Preservation 49

31 Ecosystem Preservation Urbanization "Something will have gone out of us as a people if we ever let the remaining wilderness be destroyed...we simply need that wild country available to us, even if we never do more than drive to its edge and look in. For it can be a means of reassuring ourselves of our sanity as creatures, a part of the geography of hope." Objective: 1. To visit various types of public lands. 2. To compare restricted and multi-use public lands. 3. Expose students to wilderness areas, national forest, The Appalachian Trail, Blue Ridge Parkway and city parks. Introduction: The following two labs are designed to expose you to some of the unique landscape features of central Virginia and teach you about public lands. In these labs you will be exposed to The George Washington National Forest, Thunder Ridge Wilderness Area, The Appalachian Trail, The Blue Ridge Parkway and Lynchburg City Parks. You will compare use throughout each of the visited lands. It is our intent in these labs that you understand the importance of protected lands, the role of humans in management and disturbance of these systems and wilderness resources located throughout our area. Public Lands Throughout the United States we have National Parks, National Forests and other public lands that are a priceless asset to current and future generations. They represent our last best chance to protect healthy ecosystems, and they provide us with diverse recreational opportunities as well as a rich cultural legacy. Public lands provide the following benefits: Recreational Benefits Virtually all public lands are available for recreation such as:water Sports: Public lands provide millions of acres for fishing, swimming, boating, and other water-related activities. Hunting: Public lands are extensively used for hunting. Wilderness Trips: Millions of Americans visit wildlands along back country roads and by foot. Winter Sports: About 85% of the public estate receives enough snow for winter recreation, and approximately 100,000 miles of roads and trails serve cross-country skiers, snowshoers, and other winter recreational users. Almost 60% of the nation's ski-lift capacity and about one-third of all ski lifts are on the National Forests; in the West this figure is 80%. Economic Benefits 50