Aboriginal Policy Research Network Workshop/ Congress

Transcription

1 Aboriginal Policy Research Network Workshop/ Congress Urban Aboriginal Self-Governance in Ottawa, Winnipeg, and Vancouver: Trends, Problems, and Perspectives Julie Tomiak Introduction My presentation examines issues in urban Aboriginal self-governance, drawing on fieldwork data from Winnipeg, Vancouver, and Ottawa, the three cities included in my dissertation research. The central question that I seek to address is: How do local and extra-local processes of Aboriginal governance shape current realities as well as possibilities for decolonized futures for Aboriginal people in these cities? The rationale for a comparative analysis lies in the limited analytical purchase of the urban Aboriginal category. Abstractions from specific locales are somewhat problematic in light of the differences across and within cities related to the heterogeneity of Aboriginal populations in terms of cultural and national affiliations, socio-economic status, level of available services, political representation, and so on. Policy environments are also uneven, as responsibilities and relationships vary between the federal, provincial, municipal and First Nations governments, Aboriginal political organizations and local service providers. I begin with a brief overview of urban Aboriginal realities in Winnipeg, Vancouver, and Ottawa. Then, I delineate the main issues that participants have identified with respect to urban Aboriginal self-governance. Overview Table 1 (see appendix) provides a snapshot of the number of Aboriginal people living in Winnipeg, Vancouver and Ottawa in 2001 and 2006, based on Census data. Given the undercoverage of urban Aboriginal people, the actual numbers of Aboriginal residents can be expected to be higher. However, the trend is clear; Aboriginal populations in all three cities have grown significantly between 2001 and Winnipeg is home to the largest number of Aboriginal people, 68,380, representing roughly 10 of the city s population. More than half of Aboriginal people in Winnipeg are Métis (40,980). 40,310 Aboriginal people live in Vancouver. Here, the Aboriginal population is very heterogeneous in terms of national affiliation and legal status. Also, about 8 of Aboriginal people from 10 different First Nations live on 22 reserves within the Greater Vancouver Regional District (Greater Vancouver Regional District 2003). While the Aboriginal population represents only a relatively small proportion of the city s population, it is growing (see also Cardinal 2006; Cardinal and Adin 2005). In Ottawa, the Aboriginal population has been growing even more rapidly. In addition to First Nations and Métis residents, Ottawa also has a significant and growing Inuit population.

2 Aboriginal Policy Research Network Workshop/ Congress While I am not suggesting that these three cities represent distinct types across the spectrum of urban Aboriginality in Canada, they can, as Evelyn Peters (2003) suggests, be seen as representative of larger groupings. In general, Aboriginal residents in Winnipeg, Vancouver, and Ottawa live in conditions significantly worse than non-aboriginal residents, with higher unemployment, lower income, poorer health status, poorer housing, higher rates of homelessness, lower levels of education, and greater dependence on government support (Siggner 2003; Stokes et al. 2004) but to varying degrees, as Table 2 (see appendix) illustrates. In Winnipeg, unemployment and poverty rates are very high and relatively few people had incomes of over $40,000 in Note that the information is dated, but it is nevertheless indicative of how Aboriginal populations in these three cities compare with respect to these characteristics. Vancouver falls in the middle of the spectrum, while in Ottawa the gap between Aboriginal and non-aboriginal populations in terms of income and education levels is the smallest, largely due to a high number of professionals working for Aboriginal organizations or the federal government (Peters 2003:51). Issues in Urban Aboriginal Self-Governance I now outline a number of issues in urban Aboriginal self-governance that were identified in expert interviews that I have conducted, namely self-government, political representation, the urban Aboriginal category, funding practices, collaboration, and political space. I briefly discuss each of these points. My intention is to highlight issues and generate discussion I do not provide an exhaustive analysis of the issues. Also, note that this is an ongoing research project and the findings, based on initial fieldwork, are preliminary. Self-Government A fundamental question is how the inherent right of self-government applies in urban contexts. So far, it has been virtually ignored. Dominant discourses center on community economic development and social cohesion, rather than on inherent rights, self-determination, and sovereignty (Walker 2005, 2006; Peters 2003). The notion of urban Aboriginal self-government is considered inconvenient because of 1) the heterogeneity of social, political, economic, and cultural circumstances that preclude any single solution; 2) the limitations of the urban Aboriginal category as the basis for defining community for First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples who reside in urban areas; 3) jurisdictional uncertainties and the problems related to making multi-level governance work, mainly around issues of financial responsibility; and 4) the continued relevance and connection to land-based nations. While the small but growing literature seems to suggest that there is consensus among practitioners that urban Aboriginal self-government will be urban-focused and pan-aboriginal, this is, in fact, highly contested, particularly in Winnipeg and in Vancouver.

3 Aboriginal Policy Research Network Workshop/ Congress Political Representation Political representation for urban Aboriginal peoples is a complex issue. Relationships between First Nation, Métis, and Inuit political organizations and those operating under the urban Aboriginal umbrella category are not always smooth because of tensions over who represents who in the city. For community workers involved in service delivery for urban Aboriginal people this can mean that, at times, it is necessary to make a clear distinction between political advocacy and service provision. In part, this is the result of different forms of Aboriginal governance. The two models of urban Aboriginal governance that the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) identified in its final report, community of interest and nation-based, often co-exist and tensions can arise when First Nations governments, political organizations and community-based service providers are competing for the same pool of resources. Urban Aboriginal A central issue is the nature of the urban Aboriginal category. A number of participants problematized urban Aboriginal, because the category does not account for differences based on legal status and for many, but not all continued ties to land-based First Nations, Métis, and Inuit home communities. At the same time, there is a perception that the diversity and the different interests that exist in urban settings appear to serve as an excuse to exclude organizations that are mandated to address the needs and goals of urban Aboriginal people from decision-making processes and control over programming. However, as noted in the Misquadis decision, notions that Aboriginal people living in cities are somehow less Aboriginal and that organizations representing them are less legitimate, less accountable, etc. are misguided (Office of the Commissioner for Federal Judicial Affairs 2002). Funding Practices In terms of funding, Métis and Inuit organizations, in particular, struggle with the Aboriginal category. This is not always and necessarily an urban problem per se. An example that illustrates the marginalization of Métis-specific concerns is the level of Métis representation on the Aboriginal Partnership Committee in Winnipeg. The Manitoba Métis Federation has one representative on the 18-member committee. In Ottawa, Inuit organizations have stressed the need for Inuit-specific services. The position of urban Inuit community organizations across Canada is that a pan-aboriginal approach in services and programs is simply not working (Tungasuvvingat Inuit 2005:7). It is felt to be a short form for First Nations: thus causing Inuit to continue to be treated as First Nations in program delivery (Tungasuvvingat Inuit 2005:7). Also, because of the relatively small numbers of Inuit in urban settings, they are frequently given a very small portion of Aboriginal funds (Tungasuvvingat Inuit 2005:7). The climate of interagency competition was an issue that all Aboriginal participants identified as a major problem which, at times, prevents much needed coordination and collaboration among Aboriginal

4 Aboriginal Policy Research Network Workshop/ Congress agencies. Current funding practices are seen as divisive, and they can lead to the duplication of or gaps in services. Collaboration Participants noted an urgent need for urban Aboriginal policy development in the areas of education, health, employment, childcare, youth and seniors. But policies cannot be unilaterally imposed. Federal, provincial and municipal governments, as well as First Nations governments, First Nations, Métis, Inuit and Aboriginal political organizations and community-based service providers must participate in these processes. This requires the creation of formal structures that facilitate increased vertical and horizontal coordination. Making Political Space Aboriginal organizations in cities need more power and sufficient resources to be self-governing, e.g. to design programming in areas that communities themselves identify, rather than funders. This is the main problem that participants identified; the federal government and provincial governments are not working towards making political space for organizations representing and serving Aboriginal people in urban areas. In the absence of sufficient political will to transform Aboriginal-state relations to better reflect contemporary realities, several participants pointed out that litigation is the most promising route to opening up political space for Aboriginal communities in cities.

5 Aboriginal Policy Research Network Workshop/ Congress APPENDIX Table 1: Aboriginal Population in Ottawa-Gatineau, Winnipeg, and Vancouver (2001, 2006) Aboriginal Aboriginal population, 2001 population, 2006 Percentage of Aboriginal people in the city s population Ottawa-Gatineau 13, ,590 2 Winnipeg 55, , Vancouver 37, ,310 2 (Statistics Canada 2008; Siggner and Costa 2005) Table 2: Characteristics of Aboriginal-Identity Population in Selected CMAs, 1996 Less than 14 years old Single parents without grade 12 Unemployment rates Sex ratios male: female Percentage of Aboriginal people in the city s population Poverty rates earning 40,000+ in 1995 Ottawa-Hull : Winnipeg : Vancouver : (adapted from Peters 2003:52) SELECTED REFERENCES Cardinal, Nathan and Emilie Adin An Urban Aboriginal Life: The 2005 Indicators Report on the Quality of Life of Aboriginal People Living in the Greater Vancouver Region. Vancouver: Centre for Native Policy and Research. Retrieved September 23, 2007 from Cardinal, Nathan The Exclusive City: Identifying, Measuring, and Drawing Attention to Aboriginal and Indigenous Experiences in an Urban Context. Cities. Vol. 23 (3) Christie, Gordon Challenges to Urban Aboriginal Governance. In: Murphy, Michael (ed.). Canada: The State of the Federation. Reconfiguring Aboriginal-State Relations. Montreal/ Kingston: McGill-Queen s University Press Graham, Katherine A Urban Aboriginal Governance in Canada: Paradigms and Prospects. In: Hylton, John H. (ed.). Aboriginal Self-Government in Canada. Current Trends and Issues. Saskatoon: Purich Publishing Ltd Graham, Katherine and Evelyn Peters Aboriginal Communities and Urban Sustainability [Discussion Paper F 27]. Ottawa: Canadian Policy Research Networks. Greater Vancouver Regional District A Profile of Aboriginal people, First Nations, and Indian Reserves in Greater Vancouver. Burnaby: Greater Vancouver Regional District, Policy and Planning Department.

6 Aboriginal Policy Research Network Workshop/ Congress Groves, Robert Urban Aboriginal Governance in Canada: Re-Fashioning the Dialogue. Ottawa: National Association of Friendship Centres. Office of the Commissioner for Federal Judicial Affairs Ardoch Algonquin First Nation v. Canada (Attorney General) (T. D.) FCT 1058, (2002), [2003] 2 F. C Retrieved May 26, 2008 from Peters, Evelyn Geographies of Urban Aboriginal People in Canada: Implications for Urban Self-Government. In: Murphy, Michael (ed.). Canada: The State of the Federation. Reconfiguring Aboriginal-State Relations. Montreal/ Kingston: McGill-Queen s University Press Proulx, Craig Reclaiming Aboriginal Justice, Identity, and Community. Saskatoon: Purich Publishing. Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples Chapter 7: Urban Perspectives. Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, Perspectives and Realities (Vol. 4). Ottawa: Canada Communications Group-Publishing Siggner, Andrew and Rosalinda Costa Aboriginal Conditions in Census Metropolitan Areas, Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Retrieved from Siggner, Andrew The Challenge of Measuring the Demographic and Socio- Economic Conditions of the Urban Aboriginal Population. In: Newhouse, David and Evelyn Peters (eds.). Not Strangers in These Parts: Urban Aboriginal Peoples. Ottawa: Policy Research Initiative Silver, Jim In Their Own Voices. Building Urban Aboriginal Communities. Halifax: Fernwood Publishing. Statistics Canada (2008). Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006: Inuit, Métis and First Nations, 2006 Census (Catalogue no XIE). Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Stokes, Janice, Ian Peach and Raymond B. Blake Rethinking the Jurisdictional Divide: The Marginalization of Urban Aboriginal Communities and Federal Policy Responses. Regina: University of Regina/ The Saskatchewan Institute of Public Policy. Tungasuvvingat Inuit (2005). National Urban Inuit One Voice Workshop, Ottawa, October 26-27, 2005 (Report). Ottawa: Tungasuvvingat Inuit. Urban Aboriginal Task Force (2007). Ottawa Final Report (Commissioned by the Ontario Federation of Indian Friendship Centres, The Ontario Metis Aboriginal Association and The Ontario Native Women s Association). Ottawa: The Ontario Federation of Indian Friendship Centres. Walker, Ryan C Searching for Aboriginal/ Indigenous Self-Determination: Urban Citizenship in the Winnipeg Low-Cost Housing Sector, Canada. Environment and Planning A. Vol Walker, Ryan C Social Cohesion? A Critical Review of the Urban Aboriginal Strategy and its Application to Address Homelessness in Winnipeg. The Canadian Journal of Native Studies. Vol. 25 (2)