Basic Premises of Population Genetics

Size: px
Start display at page:

Download "Basic Premises of Population Genetics"

Transcription

1 Population genetics is concerned with the origin, amount and distribution of genetic variation present in populations of organisms, and the fate of this variation through space and time. The fate of genetic variation through space and time defines evolution within a species, so population genetics also provides the basis for microevolution Basic Premises of Population Genetics DNA can replicate DNA can mutate and recombine DNA encodes information that interacts with the environment to influence phenotype

2 DNA Can Replicate Because of replication, a single type of gene can exist both in time and space in a manner that transcends the individuals that temporarily bear the gene. Identity by Descent Some alleles are identical because they are replicated descendants of a single ancestral allele

3 The Existence of Genes in Space and Time Is manifest only at the level of a reproducing population Provides the spatial and temporal continuity that is necessary for evolution Deme A Deme is a local population of reproducing individuals that has physical continuity over time and space. Demes are the lowest biological level that can evolve. 3

4 Demes are Characterized by Genotype Frequencies. E.g., Consider a Population of Pueblo Indians Scored for the MN Blood Group Type Blood Type M MN N Genotype MM MN NN Total Number Genotype Freq. 83/40= /40= 0.33 /40= 0.08 Demes are Characterized by Genotype Frequencies. E.g., Consider a Population of Australian Aborigines Scored for the MN Blood Group Type Blood Type M MN N Genotype MM MN NN Total Number Genotype Freq. 9/37 = / 37 = / 37 =

5 Demes with the Same Alleles Can Have Very Different Genotype Frequencies: Pueblo Indians MM 0.59 MN 0.33 NN.08 MM 0.04 MN Australian Aborigines NN 0.67 Gene Pool A Gene Pool is the population of gene copies that are collectively shared by the individuals of a deme. 5

6 Gene Pools are Characterized by Gamete Frequencies (Allele Frequencies when Considering only Locus). E.g., Consider a Population of Pueblo Indians Scored for the MN Blood Group Type Blood Type M MN N Genotype MM MN NN Sum Number Allele (Gamete Type) M N Allele Freq. ( 83+46)/80 = 0.76 ( +46)/80 = 0.4 Gene Pools are Characterized by Gamete Frequencies (Allele Frequencies when Considering only Locus). E.g., Consider a Population of Australian Aborigines Scored for the MN Blood Group Type Blood Type M MN N Genotype MM MN NN Sum Number Allele (Gamete Type) Allele Freq. M ( 9+3)/744 = 0.76 N ( 50+3)/744 =

7 Gene Pool (Alternative Definition) A Gene Pool is the population of potential gametes that can be produced by the individuals of a deme. The Gene Pool As a Population of Potential Gametes Gametes are the bridge from one generation to the next This definition emphasizes the genetic continuity over time of a deme This definition is more useful in evolutionary theory 7

8 Demes and Gene Pools Meiosis Interconnects the Deme to the Gene Pool Therefore, Given Mendel s Laws and Normal Meiosis, You Can Always Calculate the Allele Frequencies in the Gene Pool From the Genotype Frequencies in the Deme Demes and Gene Pools: diploid Pueblo Indian Deme MM MN NN.08 Meiosis Mendelian Probabilities / / In Meiosis haploid M (0.59) + / (0.33) = 0.76 Pueblo Indian Gene Pool N (.08) + / (.33) =.4 8

9 Demes and Gene Pools: MM 0.04 Australian Aborigine Deme diploid MN NN Meiosis / Mendelian Probabilities / In Meiosis haploid M (.04) + / (.304) = 0.76 N (0.67) + / (0.304) = 0.84 Australian Aborigine Gene Pool Demes with the Same Alleles Can Have Gene Pools With Different Allele Frequencies: Pueblo Indians M 0.76 N 0.4 M 0.76 Australian Aborigines N

10 Evolution Is a change in the frequency of alleles or allele combinations over space and time in the gene pool of a reproducing population Is a process that is manifest only at the level of a reproducing population Can never be understood in terms of individuals alone. Requires Genetic Variation Importance of Mutation If DNA replication were 00% accurate, there would be no possibility of genetic change over time: NO EVOLUTION Mutation is the ultimate source of all genetic variation 0

11 DNA Can Mutate & Recombine Occurs at the molecular level before the informational content of DNA is expressed; Hence, mutation is random with respect to the needs of the individual in coping with its environment. Proof of Randomness - Replica Plating

12 Randomness Means Mutations Have a Broad Spectrum of Impacts on Their Bearers Neutral Unfavorable Favorable Effects of 50 Spontaneous Mutation Lines Derived from a Strain of Yeast Growing in a Laboratory Environment. Distribution of fitness effects caused by single-nucleotide substitutions in bacteriophage f Peris, J. B. et al. Genetics 00;85: Copyright 00 by the Genetics Society of America

13 Mutation Creates Allelic Variation Recombination and Diploidy Amplify It E.g., We now know of,000,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), most of which are bi-allelic and can form 3 genotypes each. Recombination Can Produce Gametic Combinations of These 4 million Alleles These Gametes Can Create Genotypes There are Humans In the World There are 0 80 Electrons in the Universe High Genetic Variation Implies: Each Individual Is Unique Evolution Can Occur 3

14 Basic Premises of Population Genetics DNA can replicate DNA can mutate and recombine DNA encodes information that interacts with the environment to influence phenotype A phenotype is a measurable trait of an individual. DNA encodes information that interacts with the environment to influence phenotype Among The Traits That Can Be Influenced By Genetically Determined Responses to the Environment Are:. The Viability in the Environment. Given Alive, the Mating Success in the Environment 3. Given Alive and Mated, Fertility or Fecundity in the Environment. 4

15 Physical Basis of Evolution DNA can replicate DNA can mutate and recombine DNA encodes information that interacts with the environment to influence phenotype Viability Mating Success Fecundity/Fertility These Are Combined Into A Single Phenotype of Reproductive Success Or FITNESS How to Model Microevolution Evolution is a change over time in the frequency of alleles or allele combinations in the gene pool, so any model of evolution must include at the minimum the passing of genetic material from one generation to the next. Hence, our fundamental time unit will be the transition between two consecutive generations at comparable stages. All such trans-generational models of microevolution have to make assumptions about three major mechanisms: Mechanisms of producing gametes Mechanisms of uniting gametes Mechanisms of developing phenotypes. 5

16 How to Model Microevolution In order to specify how gametes are produced, we have to specify the genetic architecture. Genetic architecture refers to the number of loci and their genomic positions, the number of alleles per locus, the mutation rates, and the mode and rules of inheritance of the genetic elements. For example, the first model we will develop assumes a single autosomal locus with two alleles with no mutation. Under this genetic architecture, we need only to use Mendel s first law of inheritance to specify how genotypes produce gametes. Demes and Gene Pools Meiosis Interconnects the Deme to the Gene Pool Therefore, Given Mendel s Laws and Normal Meiosis, You Can Always Calculate the Allele Frequencies in the Gene Pool From the Genotype Frequencies in the Deme Can You Predict the Deme (Genotype Frequencies) from the Gene Pool (Allele Frequencies)? 6

17 AA aa / / Demes AA / 4 Aa aa / / 4 / / A a / / Gene Pools A a / / Hardy (and Weinberg) Solution FERTILIZATION To Go From Gene Pool (Gametes) to Deme (Initially Zygotes),Need to Specify The Rules by Which Gametes Unite (Fertilization) 7

18 Population Structure Population Structure refers to the rules at the level of the deme by which gametes are united in fertilization, thereby defining the transition from haploidy to diploidy. Models in Population Genetics Minimally Specify How To Go From One Generation To The Next Deme of Adult Diploid Individuals Meiosis Gene Pool of Haploid Gametes Fertilization Deme of Adult Diploid Individuals Need to Specify Genotype Frequencies, And Therefore Genetic Architecture (Number of Loci, Alleles per Locus, Linkage, Rules of Inheritance, etc.). Need to Specify Population Structure. Need to Specify How Individuals Develop Phenotypes. 8

19 Assumptions of Hardy-Weinberg Mechanisms of Producing Gametes (Genetic Architecture) One Autosomal Locus Two Alleles No Mutation Mendel s First Law (50:50 Segregation in heterozygotes) Mechanisms of Uniting Gametes (Population Structure) System of Mating: Random Size of Population: Infinite Genetic Exchange: None (One Isolated Population) Age Structure: None (Discrete Generations) Mechanisms of Developing Phenotypes All Genotypes Have Identical Phenotypes With Respect to their Ability for Replicating Their DNA Random Mating Random Mating occurs when both of the gametes united in a zygote are drawn at random and independently from the gene pool. This means that the probability of a gamete bearing a specific allele = the frequency of that allele in the gene pool, and this is true for all gametes involved in fertilization. 9

20 Random Mating A a p q = -p Gene Pool Paternal Gamete A p a q Maternal Gamete A p a q AA Aa p p=p pq aa aa qp q q=q Hardy-Weinberg Genotype Frequencies AA p Aa pq aa q 0

21 Weinberg s Derivation Mendelian Probabilities of Offspring (Zygotes) Mating Pair Frequency of Mating Pair AA Aa aa AA AA G AA G AA = G AA 0 0 AA Aa G AA G Aa = G AAG Aa 0 Aa AA G Aa G AA = G AAG Aa 0 AA aa G AA G aa = G AAG aa 0 0 aa AA G aa G AA = G AAG aa 0 0 Aa Aa G Aa G Aa = G Aa Aa aa G Aa G aa = G AaG aa 0 aa Aa G aa G Aa = G AaG aa 0 aa aa G aa G aa = G aa 0 0 Total Offspring G AA G Aa G aa Summing Zygotes Over All Mating Types: G AA=G AA + [G AAG Aa] + G Aa = [G AA+ G Aa] = p G Aa= [ G AAG Aa]+ G AAG aa+ G Aa + [ G AaG aa]= [G AA+ G Aa][G aa+ G Aa] = pq G aa= G Aa + [ G AaG aa] + G aa = [G aa+ G Aa] = q The Life Cycle for a Population Deme of Diploid Individuals AA G AA Aa G Aa aa G aa Meiosis Mendelian Probabilities / / Gene Pool of Haploid Gametes A p=g AA + / G Aa a q=g aa + / G Aa Fertilization Random Mating p p p q q q Deme of Diploid Individuals AA p Aa pq aa q

22 Random Mating Is Locus Specific Although the Pueblo Indians are randomly mating for the MN Blood Group Locus, They Are Not Randomly Mating For All Loci, e.g., the X and Y Chromosomes Hardy-Weinberg Frequencies Represent An Equilibrium No Assumption is Made About These Genotype Frequencies; They May or May Not Be in Hardy-Weinberg Mendelian Probabilities AA G AA A Aa G Aa / / aa G aa a p=g AA + / G Aa q=g aa + / G Aa Random Mating One Generation of Random Mating Insures These Are Hardy-Weinberg Genotype Frequencies p p p q q q AA Aa aa p pq q

23 Hardy-Weinberg Frequencies Represent An Equilibrium The Frequency of The A Allele in the Next Generation s Gene Pool Is: p = p + / pq = p + pq = p(p + q) = p Therefore, the Gene Pool Is Unchanged Random Mating Mendelian Probabilities A p=g AA + / G Aa AA p Aa pq a q=g aa + / G Aa p p p q q q A p =p + / pq =p(p+q) = p / / a aa q q =q + / pq =q(q+p)=q There Is NO Evolution Under The Hardy- Weinberg Model Random Mating Mendelian Probabilities A p=g AA + / G Aa AA p Aa pq a q=g aa + / G Aa p p p q q q A p =p + / pq =p(p+q) = p / / a aa q q =q + / pq =q(q+p)=q 3

24 Importance of Hardy-Weinberg Acceptance of Mendelian Genetics (Punnett s dilemma) Resurrection of Natural Selection (Jenkin s critique) A useful null model of evolutionary stasis. A valuable springboard for the investigation of many forces of evolutionary change by relaxing its assumptions. Despite the many violations of its assumptions, it works sufficiently well in humans that testing for H-W is used as a standard quality-control procedure in modern genetic surveys. Testing for Hardy-Weinberg Genotype Frequencies. E.g., a Population of Pueblo Indians Scored for the MN Blood Group Type Blood Type M MN N Sum Genotype MM MN NN Number H.-W. Freq. Exp. Number (Obs.-Exp.) Exp. (0.76) = (40) = 8. (83-8.) 8. (0.76) (0.4)= (40) = 50.4 ( ) 50.4 (0.4) = (40) = 8.4 (-8.4) Degrees of Freedom = 3 Categories - - estimated parameter = 4

25 Two Locus Hardy Weinberg Gene Pool AB g AB Ab g Ab ab g ab ab g ab Mechanisms of Uniting Gametes (Random Mating) Zygotic/Adult Population AB/AB g AB AB/Ab g AB g Ab AB/aB g AB g ab AB/ab g AB g ab Ab/Ab g Ab Ab/aB g Ab g ab Ab/ab g Ab g ab ab/ab g ab ab/ab g ab g ab ab/ab g ab Mechanisms of Producing Gametes (Mendel's First Law & Recombination) Gene Pool of Next Generation AB g' AB Ab g' Ab ab g' ab ab g' ab Recombination Occurs in All Genotypes, But Can Change The State of the Parental Gametes Only in Double Heterozygotes. 5

26 Two Locus Hardy Weinberg Gene Pool AB g AB Ab g Ab ab g ab ab g ab Mechanisms of Uniting Gametes (Random Mating) Zygotic/Adult Population AB/AB g AB AB/Ab g AB g Ab AB/aB g AB g ab AB/ab g AB g ab Ab/Ab g Ab Ab/aB g Ab g ab Ab/ab g Ab g ab ab/ab g ab ab/ab g ab g ab ab/ab g ab Mechanisms of Producing Gametes (Mendel's First Law & Recombination) Gene Pool of Next Generation AB g' AB Ab g' Ab Double heterozygotes can produce all four gamete types. ab g' ab ab g' ab Two Locus Hardy Weinberg g' AB = g AB + (g ABg Ab ) + (g ABg ab ) + ( r)(g ABg ab ) + r(g Abg ab ) [ ] + rg Ab g ab [ ] + rg Ab g ab rg AB g ab = g AB g AB + g Ab + g ab +( r)g ab = g AB g AB + g Ab + g ab + g ab = g AB + r(g Ab g ab g AB g ab ) = g AB rd Where D = g AB g ab - g Ab g ab D is called Linkage Disequilibrium or Gametic Phase Imbalance 6

27 Two Locus Hardy Weinberg Similarly, can show: gʼab = g AB - rd gʼab = g Ab + rd gʼab = g ab + rd gʼab = g ab - rd Where D = g AB g ab - g Ab g ab D, linkage disequilibrium It measures the degree of association at the population level between the two sites/loci D is created by many evolutionary forces and historical events, including the very act of mutation because the new mutant variant initially exists on only one chromosomal background. 7

28 Two Locus Hardy Weinberg g AB =g AB -D g Ab =g Ab +D g ab =g ab +D g ab =g ab -D g ij g ij if r > 0 and D 0 That is, Evolution Occurs! Two Locus Hardy Weinberg g AB =g AB -D 0 g Ab =g Ab +D 0 g ab =g ab +D 0 g ab =g ab -D 0 D =g AB g ab -g Ab g ab =D 0 (-r) and D t =D 0 (-r) t The two locus equilibrium is Approached gradually, at a rate determined by r. Historical Information is Encoded in D (and other Multi-locus/site measures) That decays gradually with time! This information persists for long periods of time for tightly linked sites. 8

29 Theoretical Decay of LD in a Random-Mating Population In a genomic region with no recombination, the LD created by mutation never dissipates. Two Locus Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium ( )( g AB + g ab ) p A = g AB + g Ab so p A p B = g + g AB Ab p B = g AB + g ab = g AB + g AB g ab + g AB g Ab + g Ab g ab ( ) + g Ab g ab = g AB g AB + g ab + g Ab = g AB ( g ab ) + g Ab g ab = g AB g AB g ab + g Ab g ab = g AB D As t goes to infinity, D goes to 0 (the equilibrium), so at the two-locus equilibrium, g AB =p A p B, and similarly for the other gamete frequencies. 9

30 At equilibrium the two loci associate at random (proportional to their allele frequencies) in the Population s Gene Pool: B k b m A p a q AB pk=g AB ab qk=g ab Ab pm=g Ab ab qm=g ab D = g AB g ab - g Ab g ab =pkqm-pmqk=0 D 0 measures the degree of non-random association at the population gene pool level between the two sites/loci Many Factors Create Disequilibrium, Including the Very Act Of Mutation Once created, disequilibrium decays at a rate determined in part by recombination, and in part by population structure (as we will see later). 30

31 Linkage disequilibrium is created when mutation creates new variation D = g AB g ab - g Ab g ab = g AB 0-0g ab =0 Initial Gene Pool: A B a B a B Mutation At A Second Site Produces Three Gamete Types: Gene Pool After Mutation: A B a B a b D = g AB g ab - g Ab g ab = g AB g ab - 0g ab = g AB g ab 0 Can see the effects of mutation on Linkage disequilibrium more clearly through D D min p A p B,p a p b D'= D min p A p b,p a p B ( ), D < 0 ( ), D > 0 D varies between - and +, and when mutation first creates the third gamete type, D =- or +, so mutation creates maximal linkage disequilibrium. 3

32 D (or D ) decays with recombination: A B A B a B a B D=0 Mutation At A Second Site Produces Three Gamete Types: A B A B a B a b D = g Recombination AB g ab Produces Four Dʼ = Gamete Types A B A b a B a b D = g AB g ab - g Ab g ab < g AB g ab ; Dʼ < Another Common Measure of Linkage Disequilibrium is r r = D p A p a p B p b r varies from 0 to when the allele frequencies are the same at both loci; otherwise, its range is affected by allele frequencies and are from 0 to some number less than. 3

33 In regions of little to no recombination, the pattern of disequilibrium is determined primarily by the historical conditions that existed at the time of mutation, resulting in little to no correlation of D with physical distance Indel Xmn I TaqI PstI SstI Pvu II Apo AI Apo CIII Apo AIV Significant linkage disequilibrium On larger physical scales, D is negatively correlated with physical distance D S U D i s t a n c e (kb) kb Utah Swed AllYor YorBot YorTop Reich et al. (00 Nature 4:99-04) 33

34 Disequilibrium and Historical Effects Create Both Opportunities and Difficulties for the Analysis of Population Genetic Data, As We Shall See Some lessons from vs. -locus HW: A seemingly slight change in the model can create qualitative differences (e.g., no evolution in locus HW vs. evolution in -locus HW; instantaneous equilibrium in locus HW vs. gradual or no equibrium in locus HW) Scale matters (e.g., the relationship between D and physical distance on different scales of physical distance). The inferences made from a model are often very sensitive to the assumptions of that model. Generalize with care! 34

Biology 1406 - Notes for exam 5 - Population genetics Ch 13, 14, 15

Biology 1406 - Notes for exam 5 - Population genetics Ch 13, 14, 15 Biology 1406 - Notes for exam 5 - Population genetics Ch 13, 14, 15 Species - group of individuals that are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring; genetically similar 13.7, 14.2 Population

More information

Basic Principles of Forensic Molecular Biology and Genetics. Population Genetics

Basic Principles of Forensic Molecular Biology and Genetics. Population Genetics Basic Principles of Forensic Molecular Biology and Genetics Population Genetics Significance of a Match What is the significance of: a fiber match? a hair match? a glass match? a DNA match? Meaning of

More information

Evolution (18%) 11 Items Sample Test Prep Questions

Evolution (18%) 11 Items Sample Test Prep Questions Evolution (18%) 11 Items Sample Test Prep Questions Grade 7 (Evolution) 3.a Students know both genetic variation and environmental factors are causes of evolution and diversity of organisms. (pg. 109 Science

More information

Name: Class: Date: ID: A

Name: Class: Date: ID: A Name: Class: _ Date: _ Meiosis Quiz 1. (1 point) A kidney cell is an example of which type of cell? a. sex cell b. germ cell c. somatic cell d. haploid cell 2. (1 point) How many chromosomes are in a human

More information

Summary. 16 1 Genes and Variation. 16 2 Evolution as Genetic Change. Name Class Date

Summary. 16 1 Genes and Variation. 16 2 Evolution as Genetic Change. Name Class Date Chapter 16 Summary Evolution of Populations 16 1 Genes and Variation Darwin s original ideas can now be understood in genetic terms. Beginning with variation, we now know that traits are controlled by

More information

Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles

Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Name Period Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Concept 13.1 Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes 1. Let s begin with a review of several terms that you may already know.

More information

Chapter 9 Patterns of Inheritance

Chapter 9 Patterns of Inheritance Bio 100 Patterns of Inheritance 1 Chapter 9 Patterns of Inheritance Modern genetics began with Gregor Mendel s quantitative experiments with pea plants History of Heredity Blending theory of heredity -

More information

Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles

Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles Name Period Concept 13.1 Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes 1. Let s begin with a review of several terms that you may already know. Define: gene locus gamete male gamete female

More information

Deterministic computer simulations were performed to evaluate the effect of maternallytransmitted

Deterministic computer simulations were performed to evaluate the effect of maternallytransmitted Supporting Information 3. Host-parasite simulations Deterministic computer simulations were performed to evaluate the effect of maternallytransmitted parasites on the evolution of sex. Briefly, the simulations

More information

Bio EOC Topics for Cell Reproduction: Bio EOC Questions for Cell Reproduction:

Bio EOC Topics for Cell Reproduction: Bio EOC Questions for Cell Reproduction: Bio EOC Topics for Cell Reproduction: Asexual vs. sexual reproduction Mitosis steps, diagrams, purpose o Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis Meiosis steps, diagrams, purpose

More information

Forensic DNA Testing Terminology

Forensic DNA Testing Terminology Forensic DNA Testing Terminology ABI 310 Genetic Analyzer a capillary electrophoresis instrument used by forensic DNA laboratories to separate short tandem repeat (STR) loci on the basis of their size.

More information

PRINCIPLES OF POPULATION GENETICS

PRINCIPLES OF POPULATION GENETICS PRINCIPLES OF POPULATION GENETICS FOURTH EDITION Daniel L. Hartl Harvard University Andrew G. Clark Cornell University UniversitSts- und Landesbibliothek Darmstadt Bibliothek Biologie Sinauer Associates,

More information

Chapter 8: Recombinant DNA 2002 by W. H. Freeman and Company Chapter 8: Recombinant DNA 2002 by W. H. Freeman and Company

Chapter 8: Recombinant DNA 2002 by W. H. Freeman and Company Chapter 8: Recombinant DNA 2002 by W. H. Freeman and Company Genetic engineering: humans Gene replacement therapy or gene therapy Many technical and ethical issues implications for gene pool for germ-line gene therapy what traits constitute disease rather than just

More information

Chromosomes, Mapping, and the Meiosis Inheritance Connection

Chromosomes, Mapping, and the Meiosis Inheritance Connection Chromosomes, Mapping, and the Meiosis Inheritance Connection Carl Correns 1900 Chapter 13 First suggests central role for chromosomes Rediscovery of Mendel s work Walter Sutton 1902 Chromosomal theory

More information

Genetics and Evolution: An ios Application to Supplement Introductory Courses in. Transmission and Evolutionary Genetics

Genetics and Evolution: An ios Application to Supplement Introductory Courses in. Transmission and Evolutionary Genetics G3: Genes Genomes Genetics Early Online, published on April 11, 2014 as doi:10.1534/g3.114.010215 Genetics and Evolution: An ios Application to Supplement Introductory Courses in Transmission and Evolutionary

More information

Two-locus population genetics

Two-locus population genetics Two-locus population genetics Introduction So far in this course we ve dealt only with variation at a single locus. There are obviously many traits that are governed by more than a single locus in whose

More information

7 POPULATION GENETICS

7 POPULATION GENETICS 7 POPULATION GENETICS 7.1 INTRODUCTION Most humans are susceptible to HIV infection. However, some people seem to be able to avoid infection despite repeated exposure. Some resistance is due to a rare

More information

Gene Mapping Techniques

Gene Mapping Techniques Gene Mapping Techniques OBJECTIVES By the end of this session the student should be able to: Define genetic linkage and recombinant frequency State how genetic distance may be estimated State how restriction

More information

Biology 1406 Exam 4 Notes Cell Division and Genetics Ch. 8, 9

Biology 1406 Exam 4 Notes Cell Division and Genetics Ch. 8, 9 Biology 1406 Exam 4 Notes Cell Division and Genetics Ch. 8, 9 Ch. 8 Cell Division Cells divide to produce new cells must pass genetic information to new cells - What process of DNA allows this? Two types

More information

(1-p) 2. p(1-p) From the table, frequency of DpyUnc = ¼ (p^2) = #DpyUnc = p^2 = 0.0004 ¼(1-p)^2 + ½(1-p)p + ¼(p^2) #Dpy + #DpyUnc

(1-p) 2. p(1-p) From the table, frequency of DpyUnc = ¼ (p^2) = #DpyUnc = p^2 = 0.0004 ¼(1-p)^2 + ½(1-p)p + ¼(p^2) #Dpy + #DpyUnc Advanced genetics Kornfeld problem set_key 1A (5 points) Brenner employed 2-factor and 3-factor crosses with the mutants isolated from his screen, and visually assayed for recombination events between

More information

Basics of Marker Assisted Selection

Basics of Marker Assisted Selection asics of Marker ssisted Selection Chapter 15 asics of Marker ssisted Selection Julius van der Werf, Department of nimal Science rian Kinghorn, Twynam Chair of nimal reeding Technologies University of New

More information

5 GENETIC LINKAGE AND MAPPING

5 GENETIC LINKAGE AND MAPPING 5 GENETIC LINKAGE AND MAPPING 5.1 Genetic Linkage So far, we have considered traits that are affected by one or two genes, and if there are two genes, we have assumed that they assort independently. However,

More information

A and B are not absolutely linked. They could be far enough apart on the chromosome that they assort independently.

A and B are not absolutely linked. They could be far enough apart on the chromosome that they assort independently. Name Section 7.014 Problem Set 5 Please print out this problem set and record your answers on the printed copy. Answers to this problem set are to be turned in to the box outside 68-120 by 5:00pm on Friday

More information

Continuous and discontinuous variation

Continuous and discontinuous variation Continuous and discontinuous variation Variation, the small differences that exist between individuals, can be described as being either discontinuous or continuous. Discontinuous variation This is where

More information

Genetics Lecture Notes 7.03 2005. Lectures 1 2

Genetics Lecture Notes 7.03 2005. Lectures 1 2 Genetics Lecture Notes 7.03 2005 Lectures 1 2 Lecture 1 We will begin this course with the question: What is a gene? This question will take us four lectures to answer because there are actually several

More information

Biology 274: Genetics Syllabus

Biology 274: Genetics Syllabus Biology 274: Genetics Syllabus Description: An examination of the basic principles of genetics in eukaryotes and prokaryotes at the level of molecules, cells, and multicelluar organisms, including humans.

More information

I. Genes found on the same chromosome = linked genes

I. Genes found on the same chromosome = linked genes Genetic recombination in Eukaryotes: crossing over, part 1 I. Genes found on the same chromosome = linked genes II. III. Linkage and crossing over Crossing over & chromosome mapping I. Genes found on the

More information

Principles of Evolution - Origin of Species

Principles of Evolution - Origin of Species Theories of Organic Evolution X Multiple Centers of Creation (de Buffon) developed the concept of "centers of creation throughout the world organisms had arisen, which other species had evolved from X

More information

AP Biology Essential Knowledge Student Diagnostic

AP Biology Essential Knowledge Student Diagnostic AP Biology Essential Knowledge Student Diagnostic Background The Essential Knowledge statements provided in the AP Biology Curriculum Framework are scientific claims describing phenomenon occurring in

More information

Population Genetics and Multifactorial Inheritance 2002

Population Genetics and Multifactorial Inheritance 2002 Population Genetics and Multifactorial Inheritance 2002 Consanguinity Genetic drift Founder effect Selection Mutation rate Polymorphism Balanced polymorphism Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

More information

Lecture 10 Friday, March 20, 2009

Lecture 10 Friday, March 20, 2009 Lecture 10 Friday, March 20, 2009 Reproductive isolating mechanisms Prezygotic barriers: Anything that prevents mating and fertilization is a prezygotic mechanism. Habitat isolation, behavioral isolation,

More information

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Problems

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Problems Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Problems 1. The frequency of two alleles in a gene pool is 0.19 (A) and 0.81(a). Assume that the population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. (a) Calculate the percentage of

More information

AP: LAB 8: THE CHI-SQUARE TEST. Probability, Random Chance, and Genetics

AP: LAB 8: THE CHI-SQUARE TEST. Probability, Random Chance, and Genetics Ms. Foglia Date AP: LAB 8: THE CHI-SQUARE TEST Probability, Random Chance, and Genetics Why do we study random chance and probability at the beginning of a unit on genetics? Genetics is the study of inheritance,

More information

LECTURE 6 Gene Mutation (Chapter 16.1-16.2)

LECTURE 6 Gene Mutation (Chapter 16.1-16.2) LECTURE 6 Gene Mutation (Chapter 16.1-16.2) 1 Mutation: A permanent change in the genetic material that can be passed from parent to offspring. Mutant (genotype): An organism whose DNA differs from the

More information

Practice Problems 4. (a) 19. (b) 36. (c) 17

Practice Problems 4. (a) 19. (b) 36. (c) 17 Chapter 10 Practice Problems Practice Problems 4 1. The diploid chromosome number in a variety of chrysanthemum is 18. What would you call varieties with the following chromosome numbers? (a) 19 (b) 36

More information

Simulation Model of Mating Behavior in Flies

Simulation Model of Mating Behavior in Flies Simulation Model of Mating Behavior in Flies MEHMET KAYIM & AYKUT Ecological and Evolutionary Genetics Lab. Department of Biology, Middle East Technical University International Workshop on Hybrid Systems

More information

Chapter 3. Chapter Outline. Chapter Outline 9/11/10. Heredity and Evolu4on

Chapter 3. Chapter Outline. Chapter Outline 9/11/10. Heredity and Evolu4on Chapter 3 Heredity and Evolu4on Chapter Outline The Cell DNA Structure and Function Cell Division: Mitosis and Meiosis The Genetic Principles Discovered by Mendel Mendelian Inheritance in Humans Misconceptions

More information

Forensic Statistics. From the ground up. 15 th International Symposium on Human Identification

Forensic Statistics. From the ground up. 15 th International Symposium on Human Identification Forensic Statistics 15 th International Symposium on Human Identification From the ground up UNTHSC John V. Planz, Ph.D. UNT Health Science Center at Fort Worth Why so much attention to statistics? Exclusions

More information

Lecture 2: Mitosis and meiosis

Lecture 2: Mitosis and meiosis Lecture 2: Mitosis and meiosis 1. Chromosomes 2. Diploid life cycle 3. Cell cycle 4. Mitosis 5. Meiosis 6. Parallel behavior of genes and chromosomes Basic morphology of chromosomes telomere short arm

More information

Biology Final Exam Study Guide: Semester 2

Biology Final Exam Study Guide: Semester 2 Biology Final Exam Study Guide: Semester 2 Questions 1. Scientific method: What does each of these entail? Investigation and Experimentation Problem Hypothesis Methods Results/Data Discussion/Conclusion

More information

1. Why is mitosis alone insufficient for the life cycle of sexually reproducing eukaryotes?

1. Why is mitosis alone insufficient for the life cycle of sexually reproducing eukaryotes? Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles 1. Why is mitosis alone insufficient for the life cycle of sexually reproducing eukaryotes? 2. Define: gamete zygote meiosis homologous chromosomes diploid haploid

More information

Heredity. Sarah crosses a homozygous white flower and a homozygous purple flower. The cross results in all purple flowers.

Heredity. Sarah crosses a homozygous white flower and a homozygous purple flower. The cross results in all purple flowers. Heredity 1. Sarah is doing an experiment on pea plants. She is studying the color of the pea plants. Sarah has noticed that many pea plants have purple flowers and many have white flowers. Sarah crosses

More information

Biology Behind the Crime Scene Week 4: Lab #4 Genetics Exercise (Meiosis) and RFLP Analysis of DNA

Biology Behind the Crime Scene Week 4: Lab #4 Genetics Exercise (Meiosis) and RFLP Analysis of DNA Page 1 of 5 Biology Behind the Crime Scene Week 4: Lab #4 Genetics Exercise (Meiosis) and RFLP Analysis of DNA Genetics Exercise: Understanding how meiosis affects genetic inheritance and DNA patterns

More information

Lecture 6: Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs)

Lecture 6: Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs) Lecture 6: Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms (RFLPs) Single nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs (pronounced "snips") are DNA sequence variations that occur

More information

A Hands-On Exercise To Demonstrate Evolution

A Hands-On Exercise To Demonstrate Evolution HOW-TO-DO-IT A Hands-On Exercise To Demonstrate Evolution by Natural Selection & Genetic Drift H ELEN J. YOUNG T RUMAN P. Y OUNG Although students learn (i.e., hear about) the components of evolution by

More information

Terms: The following terms are presented in this lesson (shown in bold italics and on PowerPoint Slides 2 and 3):

Terms: The following terms are presented in this lesson (shown in bold italics and on PowerPoint Slides 2 and 3): Unit B: Understanding Animal Reproduction Lesson 4: Understanding Genetics Student Learning Objectives: Instruction in this lesson should result in students achieving the following objectives: 1. Explain

More information

Mendelian and Non-Mendelian Heredity Grade Ten

Mendelian and Non-Mendelian Heredity Grade Ten Ohio Standards Connection: Life Sciences Benchmark C Explain the genetic mechanisms and molecular basis of inheritance. Indicator 6 Explain that a unit of hereditary information is called a gene, and genes

More information

Popstats Unplugged. 14 th International Symposium on Human Identification. John V. Planz, Ph.D. UNT Health Science Center at Fort Worth

Popstats Unplugged. 14 th International Symposium on Human Identification. John V. Planz, Ph.D. UNT Health Science Center at Fort Worth Popstats Unplugged 14 th International Symposium on Human Identification John V. Planz, Ph.D. UNT Health Science Center at Fort Worth Forensic Statistics From the ground up Why so much attention to statistics?

More information

Lecture 7 Mitosis & Meiosis

Lecture 7 Mitosis & Meiosis Lecture 7 Mitosis & Meiosis Cell Division Essential for body growth and tissue repair Interphase G 1 phase Primary cell growth phase S phase DNA replication G 2 phase Microtubule synthesis Mitosis Nuclear

More information

Genetics 1. Defective enzyme that does not make melanin. Very pale skin and hair color (albino)

Genetics 1. Defective enzyme that does not make melanin. Very pale skin and hair color (albino) Genetics 1 We all know that children tend to resemble their parents. Parents and their children tend to have similar appearance because children inherit genes from their parents and these genes influence

More information

Heredity - Patterns of Inheritance

Heredity - Patterns of Inheritance Heredity - Patterns of Inheritance Genes and Alleles A. Genes 1. A sequence of nucleotides that codes for a special functional product a. Transfer RNA b. Enzyme c. Structural protein d. Pigments 2. Genes

More information

Globally, about 9.7% of cancers in men are prostate cancers, and the risk of developing the

Globally, about 9.7% of cancers in men are prostate cancers, and the risk of developing the Chapter 5 Analysis of Prostate Cancer Association Study Data 5.1 Risk factors for Prostate Cancer Globally, about 9.7% of cancers in men are prostate cancers, and the risk of developing the disease has

More information

Y Chromosome Markers

Y Chromosome Markers Y Chromosome Markers Lineage Markers Autosomal chromosomes recombine with each meiosis Y and Mitochondrial DNA does not This means that the Y and mtdna remains constant from generation to generation Except

More information

Okami Study Guide: Chapter 3 1

Okami Study Guide: Chapter 3 1 Okami Study Guide: Chapter 3 1 Chapter in Review 1. Heredity is the tendency of offspring to resemble their parents in various ways. Genes are units of heredity. They are functional strands of DNA grouped

More information

somatic cell egg genotype gamete polar body phenotype homologous chromosome trait dominant autosome genetics recessive

somatic cell egg genotype gamete polar body phenotype homologous chromosome trait dominant autosome genetics recessive CHAPTER 6 MEIOSIS AND MENDEL Vocabulary Practice somatic cell egg genotype gamete polar body phenotype homologous chromosome trait dominant autosome genetics recessive CHAPTER 6 Meiosis and Mendel sex

More information

10 Evolutionarily Stable Strategies

10 Evolutionarily Stable Strategies 10 Evolutionarily Stable Strategies There is but a step between the sublime and the ridiculous. Leo Tolstoy In 1973 the biologist John Maynard Smith and the mathematician G. R. Price wrote an article in

More information

HLA data analysis in anthropology: basic theory and practice

HLA data analysis in anthropology: basic theory and practice HLA data analysis in anthropology: basic theory and practice Alicia Sanchez-Mazas and José Manuel Nunes Laboratory of Anthropology, Genetics and Peopling history (AGP), Department of Anthropology and Ecology,

More information

LAB : THE CHI-SQUARE TEST. Probability, Random Chance, and Genetics

LAB : THE CHI-SQUARE TEST. Probability, Random Chance, and Genetics Period Date LAB : THE CHI-SQUARE TEST Probability, Random Chance, and Genetics Why do we study random chance and probability at the beginning of a unit on genetics? Genetics is the study of inheritance,

More information

Genetics Module B, Anchor 3

Genetics Module B, Anchor 3 Genetics Module B, Anchor 3 Key Concepts: - An individual s characteristics are determines by factors that are passed from one parental generation to the next. - During gamete formation, the alleles for

More information

Mendelian inheritance and the

Mendelian inheritance and the Mendelian inheritance and the most common genetic diseases Cornelia Schubert, MD, University of Goettingen, Dept. Human Genetics EUPRIM-Net course Genetics, Immunology and Breeding Mangement German Primate

More information

BioSci 2200 General Genetics Problem Set 1 Answer Key Introduction and Mitosis/ Meiosis

BioSci 2200 General Genetics Problem Set 1 Answer Key Introduction and Mitosis/ Meiosis BioSci 2200 General Genetics Problem Set 1 Answer Key Introduction and Mitosis/ Meiosis Introduction - Fields of Genetics To answer the following question, review the three traditional subdivisions of

More information

Trasposable elements: P elements

Trasposable elements: P elements Trasposable elements: P elements In 1938 Marcus Rhodes provided the first genetic description of an unstable mutation, an allele of a gene required for the production of pigment in maize. This instability

More information

Genetics 301 Sample Final Examination Spring 2003

Genetics 301 Sample Final Examination Spring 2003 Genetics 301 Sample Final Examination Spring 2003 50 Multiple Choice Questions-(Choose the best answer) 1. A cross between two true breeding lines one with dark blue flowers and one with bright white flowers

More information

MCAS Biology. Review Packet

MCAS Biology. Review Packet MCAS Biology Review Packet 1 Name Class Date 1. Define organic. THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE 2. All living things are made up of 6 essential elements: SPONCH. Name the six elements of life. S N P C O H 3. Elements

More information

The correct answer is c A. Answer a is incorrect. The white-eye gene must be recessive since heterozygous females have red eyes.

The correct answer is c A. Answer a is incorrect. The white-eye gene must be recessive since heterozygous females have red eyes. 1. Why is the white-eye phenotype always observed in males carrying the white-eye allele? a. Because the trait is dominant b. Because the trait is recessive c. Because the allele is located on the X chromosome

More information

CCR Biology - Chapter 7 Practice Test - Summer 2012

CCR Biology - Chapter 7 Practice Test - Summer 2012 Name: Class: Date: CCR Biology - Chapter 7 Practice Test - Summer 2012 Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. 1. A person who has a disorder caused

More information

Mechanisms of Evolution

Mechanisms of Evolution page 2 page 3 Teacher's Notes Mechanisms of Evolution Grades: 11-12 Duration: 28 mins Summary of Program Evolution is the gradual change that can be seen in a population s genetic composition, from one

More information

GENOMIC SELECTION: THE FUTURE OF MARKER ASSISTED SELECTION AND ANIMAL BREEDING

GENOMIC SELECTION: THE FUTURE OF MARKER ASSISTED SELECTION AND ANIMAL BREEDING GENOMIC SELECTION: THE FUTURE OF MARKER ASSISTED SELECTION AND ANIMAL BREEDING Theo Meuwissen Institute for Animal Science and Aquaculture, Box 5025, 1432 Ås, Norway, theo.meuwissen@ihf.nlh.no Summary

More information

Comparison of Major Domination Schemes for Diploid Binary Genetic Algorithms in Dynamic Environments

Comparison of Major Domination Schemes for Diploid Binary Genetic Algorithms in Dynamic Environments Comparison of Maor Domination Schemes for Diploid Binary Genetic Algorithms in Dynamic Environments A. Sima UYAR and A. Emre HARMANCI Istanbul Technical University Computer Engineering Department Maslak

More information

SeattleSNPs Interactive Tutorial: Web Tools for Site Selection, Linkage Disequilibrium and Haplotype Analysis

SeattleSNPs Interactive Tutorial: Web Tools for Site Selection, Linkage Disequilibrium and Haplotype Analysis SeattleSNPs Interactive Tutorial: Web Tools for Site Selection, Linkage Disequilibrium and Haplotype Analysis Goal: This tutorial introduces several websites and tools useful for determining linkage disequilibrium

More information

A trait is a variation of a particular character (e.g. color, height). Traits are passed from parents to offspring through genes.

A trait is a variation of a particular character (e.g. color, height). Traits are passed from parents to offspring through genes. 1 Biology Chapter 10 Study Guide Trait A trait is a variation of a particular character (e.g. color, height). Traits are passed from parents to offspring through genes. Genes Genes are located on chromosomes

More information

RETRIEVING SEQUENCE INFORMATION. Nucleotide sequence databases. Database search. Sequence alignment and comparison

RETRIEVING SEQUENCE INFORMATION. Nucleotide sequence databases. Database search. Sequence alignment and comparison RETRIEVING SEQUENCE INFORMATION Nucleotide sequence databases Database search Sequence alignment and comparison Biological sequence databases Originally just a storage place for sequences. Currently the

More information

Evolution, Natural Selection, and Adaptation

Evolution, Natural Selection, and Adaptation Evolution, Natural Selection, and Adaptation Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution. (Theodosius Dobzhansky) Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Voyage of HMS Beagle (1831-1836) Thinking

More information

Sexual Reproduction. The specialized cells that are required for sexual reproduction are known as. And come from the process of: GAMETES

Sexual Reproduction. The specialized cells that are required for sexual reproduction are known as. And come from the process of: GAMETES Sexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction We know all about asexual reproduction 1. Only one parent required. 2. Offspring are identical to parents. 3. The cells that produce the offspring are not usually

More information

MEDICAL GENETICS GENERAL OBJECTIVE SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

MEDICAL GENETICS GENERAL OBJECTIVE SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES SUBJECT MEDICAL GENETICS CREDITS Total: 4.5 Theory 2.5 Practical 2 GENERAL OBJECTIVE To provide students with terminology and knowledge from the field of human genetics that will enable them to understand

More information

F1 Generation. F2 Generation. AaBb

F1 Generation. F2 Generation. AaBb How was DNA shown to be the genetic material? We need to discuss this in an historical context. During the 19th century most scientists thought that a bit of the essence of each and every body part was

More information

List, describe, diagram, and identify the stages of meiosis.

List, describe, diagram, and identify the stages of meiosis. Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles In this topic we will examine a second type of cell division used by eukaryotic cells: meiosis. In addition, we will see how the 2 types of eukaryotic cell division, mitosis

More information

Paternity Testing. Chapter 23

Paternity Testing. Chapter 23 Paternity Testing Chapter 23 Kinship and Paternity DNA analysis can also be used for: Kinship testing determining whether individuals are related Paternity testing determining the father of a child Missing

More information

Genetics Review for USMLE (Part 2)

Genetics Review for USMLE (Part 2) Single Gene Disorders Genetics Review for USMLE (Part 2) Some Definitions Alleles variants of a given DNA sequence at a particular location (locus) in the genome. Often used more narrowly to describe alternative

More information

Report. A Note on Exact Tests of Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium. Janis E. Wigginton, 1 David J. Cutler, 2 and Gonçalo R. Abecasis 1

Report. A Note on Exact Tests of Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium. Janis E. Wigginton, 1 David J. Cutler, 2 and Gonçalo R. Abecasis 1 Am. J. Hum. Genet. 76:887 883, 2005 Report A Note on Exact Tests of Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Janis E. Wigginton, 1 David J. Cutler, 2 and Gonçalo R. Abecasis 1 1 Center for Statistical Genetics, Department

More information

AP BIOLOGY 2010 SCORING GUIDELINES (Form B)

AP BIOLOGY 2010 SCORING GUIDELINES (Form B) AP BIOLOGY 2010 SCORING GUIDELINES (Form B) Question 2 Certain human genetic conditions, such as sickle cell anemia, result from single base-pair mutations in DNA. (a) Explain how a single base-pair mutation

More information

Association between Dopamine Gene and Alcoholism in Pategar Community of Dharwad, Karnataka

Association between Dopamine Gene and Alcoholism in Pategar Community of Dharwad, Karnataka International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 3, Issue 10, October 2013 1 Association between Dopamine Gene and Alcoholism in Pategar Community of Dharwad, Karnataka SOMASHEKHAR

More information

Milestones of bacterial genetic research:

Milestones of bacterial genetic research: Milestones of bacterial genetic research: 1944 Avery's pneumococcal transformation experiment shows that DNA is the hereditary material 1946 Lederberg & Tatum describes bacterial conjugation using biochemical

More information

Science 10-Biology Activity 14 Worksheet on Sexual Reproduction

Science 10-Biology Activity 14 Worksheet on Sexual Reproduction Science 10-Biology Activity 14 Worksheet on Sexual Reproduction 10 Name Due Date Show Me NOTE: This worksheet is based on material from pages 367-372 in Science Probe. 1. Sexual reproduction requires parents,

More information

DNA for Defense Attorneys. Chapter 6

DNA for Defense Attorneys. Chapter 6 DNA for Defense Attorneys Chapter 6 Section 1: With Your Expert s Guidance, Interview the Lab Analyst Case File Curriculum Vitae Laboratory Protocols Understanding the information provided Section 2: Interpretation

More information

Von Mäusen und Menschen E - 1

Von Mäusen und Menschen E - 1 Von Mäusen und Menschen E - 1 Mus musculus: Genetic Portrait of the House Mouse E - 3 Outline Mouse genome Mouse life cycle Transgenic protocols Addition of genes by nuclear injection Removal of genes

More information

Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance. Ch. 3

Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance. Ch. 3 Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance Ch. 3 THE CHROMOSOME THEORY OF INHERITANCE AND SEX CHROMOSOMES! The chromosome theory of inheritance describes how the transmission of chromosomes account for the Mendelian

More information

CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE CHROMOSOME NUMBERS

CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE CHROMOSOME NUMBERS CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE 1. During nuclear division, the DNA (as chromatin) in a Eukaryotic cell's nucleus is coiled into very tight compact structures called chromosomes. These are rod-shaped structures made

More information

17. A testcross A.is used to determine if an organism that is displaying a recessive trait is heterozygous or homozygous for that trait. B.

17. A testcross A.is used to determine if an organism that is displaying a recessive trait is heterozygous or homozygous for that trait. B. ch04 Student: 1. Which of the following does not inactivate an X chromosome? A. Mammals B. Drosophila C. C. elegans D. Humans 2. Who originally identified a highly condensed structure in the interphase

More information

High School Science Course Correlations between Ohio s 2010 Course Syllabi and the First Draft of the High School NGSS

High School Science Course Correlations between Ohio s 2010 Course Syllabi and the First Draft of the High School NGSS High School Science Course Correlations between Ohio s 2010 Course Syllabi and the First Draft of the High School NGSS This document correlates the content in Ohio s course syllabi with the performance

More information

Name: 4. A typical phenotypic ratio for a dihybrid cross is a) 9:1 b) 3:4 c) 9:3:3:1 d) 1:2:1:2:1 e) 6:3:3:6

Name: 4. A typical phenotypic ratio for a dihybrid cross is a) 9:1 b) 3:4 c) 9:3:3:1 d) 1:2:1:2:1 e) 6:3:3:6 Name: Multiple-choice section Choose the answer which best completes each of the following statements or answers the following questions and so make your tutor happy! 1. Which of the following conclusions

More information

The Making of the Fittest: Natural Selection in Humans

The Making of the Fittest: Natural Selection in Humans OVERVIEW MENDELIN GENETIC, PROBBILITY, PEDIGREE, ND CHI-QURE TTITIC This classroom lesson uses the information presented in the short film The Making of the Fittest: Natural election in Humans (http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/making-fittest-natural-selection-humans)

More information

Introduction. What is Ecological Genetics?

Introduction. What is Ecological Genetics? 1 Introduction What is Ecological enetics? Ecological genetics is at the interface of ecology, evolution, and genetics, and thus includes important elements from each of these fields. We can use two closely

More information

Meiosis is a special form of cell division.

Meiosis is a special form of cell division. Page 1 of 6 KEY CONCEPT Meiosis is a special form of cell division. BEFORE, you learned Mitosis produces two genetically identical cells In sexual reproduction, offspring inherit traits from both parents

More information

GAW 15 Problem 3: Simulated Rheumatoid Arthritis Data Full Model and Simulation Parameters

GAW 15 Problem 3: Simulated Rheumatoid Arthritis Data Full Model and Simulation Parameters GAW 15 Problem 3: Simulated Rheumatoid Arthritis Data Full Model and Simulation Parameters Michael B Miller , Michael Li , Gregg Lind , Soon-Young

More information

5. The cells of a multicellular organism, other than gametes and the germ cells from which it develops, are known as

5. The cells of a multicellular organism, other than gametes and the germ cells from which it develops, are known as 1. True or false? The chi square statistical test is used to determine how well the observed genetic data agree with the expectations derived from a hypothesis. True 2. True or false? Chromosomes in prokaryotic

More information

LAB 8 EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION: MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

LAB 8 EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION: MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS LAB 8 EUKARYOTIC CELL DIVISION: MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS Los Angeles Mission College Biology 3 Name: Date: INTRODUCTION BINARY FISSION: Prokaryotic cells (bacteria) reproduce asexually by binary fission. Bacterial

More information

Genetic Variation and Human Evolution Lynn B. Jorde, Ph.D. Department of Human Genetics University of Utah School of Medicine.

Genetic Variation and Human Evolution Lynn B. Jorde, Ph.D. Department of Human Genetics University of Utah School of Medicine. Genetic Variation and Human Evolution Lynn B. Jorde, Ph.D. Department of Human Genetics University of Utah School of Medicine. The past two decades have witnessed an explosion of human genetic data. Innumerable

More information

What is Evolution? Introduction to Evolutionary Biology. Version 2 Copyright 1996-1997 by Chris Colby [Last Update: January 7, 1996]

What is Evolution? Introduction to Evolutionary Biology. Version 2 Copyright 1996-1997 by Chris Colby [Last Update: January 7, 1996] Introduction to Evolutionary Biology Version 2 Copyright 1996-1997 by Chris Colby [Last Update: January 7, 1996] volution is the cornerstone of modern biology. It unites all the fields of biology under

More information

INBREEDING depression is the reduction of the value

INBREEDING depression is the reduction of the value Copyright Ó 2008 by the Genetics Society of America DOI: 10.1534/genetics.108.090597 A Simple Method to Account for Natural Selection When Predicting Inbreeding Depression Aurora García-Dorado 1 Departamento

More information