An Evaluation of the Impact of Community Support Grants on the Development of Early Childhood Education, In Kiambu District, Kenya

Transcription

1 An Evaluation of the Impact of Community Support Grants on the Development of Early Childhood Education, In Kiambu District, Kenya By Wanjohi Eunice Wanjiku A Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfilment for a Masters Degree in Early Childhood Education Department of Educational Communication and Technology University of Nairobi 2010

2 DECLARATION This research project is my original work. It has not been presented for a degree in any university or college. Wanjohi Eunice Wanjiku This research project has been presented for examination with our approval as University Supervisors. Dr. John Mwangi Department of Educational Communication and Technology University of Nairobi Mr. Evanson Muriithi Department of Educational Communication and Technology University of Nairobi ii

3 DEDICATION My late dad and late sister, Wanjohi and Mumbi, This work is dedicated to you. Though physically gone, You are always in my heart. iii

4 TABLE OF CONTENT Declaration... (ii) Dedication... (iii) Table of content... (iv) List of tables and figures.... (vii) List of figures. (viii) Acknowledgment... (ix) Abstract (x) CHAPTER 1 1:0 Introduction...1 1:1 Background Information...1 1:2 Statement of the Problem..6 1:3 Purpose of the Study...8 1:4 Research Objectives..8 1:5 Research Questions...8 1:6 Significance of the Study..9 1:7 Basic Assumptions...9 1:8 Limitations of the Study...9 1:9 Delimitations of the Study..10 1:10 Organization of the Study.10 1:11 Definitions of the Terms...12 iv

5 1:12 List of abbreviations and acronyms...13 CHAPTER 2 2:0 Literature Review :1 Access to ECDE Programmes :2 Quality in ECDE Programmes (iv) 2:3 Equity in ECDE Programmes :4 Funding of ECDE Programmes..19 2:5:0 Theoretical Frame Work :5:1 Nonprofit Finance theory: Subsidy theory :6 Conceptual Framework...23 CHAPTER 3 3:0 Research Methodology..25 3:1 Research Design :2 Target Population..25 3:3 Sample size and Sampling Techniques.26 3:4 Instruments for data collection.28 3:5 Validity :6 Reliability..28 v

6 3:7 Data Collection Procedure :8 Method of Data Analysis..30 CHAPTER 4 4:0 Data analysis and findings :1 Questionnaire Return Rate :2 Demographic information :2:1 Gender Representation :2:2 Head teacher s length of stay in the ECDE centre :2:3 ECDE teachers..35 4:2:3:1 ECDE teachers Qualifications :2:3:2 ECDE teachers length of stay in current center :2:3:3 other training of the ECDE teachers..38 4:2:3:4 Remuneration of the ECDE teachers :3 Results of the analysis :3:1 Enrolment Findings 42 4:3:2 Relationship between CSG and enrolment :4 Effects of CSG on gender parity :5 Materials bought using CSG CSG and the retention of the children in the ECDE centre Other findings of the study :7:1 Challenges experienced in the implementation of CSG...53 vi

7 4:7:2 what the government should do to improve the ECDE..55 4:7:3 what the administrators should do to improve ECDE :7:4 What the ECDE teachers should do to improve ECDE...56 CHAPTER 5 5:0 Summery, recommendations and conclusions.57 5:1 Summery of the study..57 5:2 Recommendations 60 5:3 Suggestions for further study :4 Conclusion :0 References :0 Appendices :1 Appendix 1: Head teacher s questionnaire :2 Appendix 2: Teacher s questionnaire :3 Appendix 3: Check list (with CSG).74 7:4 Appendix 4: Programme Officer s Questionnaire :5 Appendix 5: Head teacher s questionnaire (without CSG) :6 Appendix 6: Teacher s questionnaire (without CSG)..79 7:7 Appendix 7: Check list (without CSG) 82 7:8 Appendix 8: Enrolment list :9 Appendix 9: Time frame and Financial Budget...86 vii

8 LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Distribution of ECDE centres in Kiambu District 26 Table 3.2: Sampling of the ECDE centres.27 Table 4.1 Questionnaire Return Rate.31 Table 4.2 Head teachers in gender.32 Table 4.3 Head teacher s length of stay in the ECDE centre. 33 Table 4.4 Head teacher s length of stay in the centre per CSG phases..34 Table 4.5 Qualification of the ECDE teachers...36 Table 4.6 Professional qualification of ECDE teachers.37 Table 4.7 Length of stay of the teacher in the ECDE centre..38 Table 4.8 Head teachers response on remuneration of teachers...40 Table 4.9 Enrolment findings without CSG...45 Table 4.10 Enrolment according to head teachers and teachers.47 Table 4.11 Effects of gender balance of children...48 Table 4.12 were the materials bought by use of CSG...49 Table 4.13 Retention rate with CSG according to respondents.50 Table 4.14Retention rate with CSG from documentaries..51 Table 4.15 Retention rate without CSG from documentaries...52 viii

9 LIST OF FIGURES Diagram 2.1 Conceptual Framework.23 Figure 4.1 other qualifications of the ECDE teachers...39 Figure 4.2 Enrolment without CSG...42 Figure 4.3 Enrolment treads of ECDE centres without CSG Figure4.4 Enrolment with CSG.44 ix

10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research study was done with a lot of help. The whole research document was developed through a lot of consultations and collaborations. It is my hope that this document will be a help to many people especially those in Kiambu district. I would like to thank all the people who helped me reach the end of this project. The focused leadership of Dr. Mwangi together with Mr. Muriithi and Dr Ngaruiya is highly appreciated. You all provided me with the academic advice and guidance in the whole process of the study and your determination to the completion of this document has really inspired me. To all the head teachers and ECDE teachers of Kiambu district who agreed and whole hearted provided the data for this study accurately and on time, I say thank you. I would wish to thank my mother and sisters who consistently gave me the courage to undertake this project and in whose shoulders I laid my head when the going became tough. To all my colleagues at work, your understanding and cooperation that made this study successful has really touched my heart. I wish most sincerely to acknowledge, Esther Waithira for the dedication that you showed on this work. You were with me during the whole period of the study, giving me all the support that I needed. The selfish less help you showed during that busy time of the study has left a mark in my heart. I would like to acknowledge Stephen Mugo who not only offered me a computer to use during the whole time I did this study but also agreed to print the work for me whenever I needed your services. The selfish less dedication you gave me during this study has really touched my heart. Whenever l read this document I will always remember you. To all of you thank you very much and may God bless you mightily. x

11 ABSTRACT A key objective of Sessional Paper no. 1 of 2005 entitled, Policy Framework for Education, Training and Research is to enhance access, equity and quality of education at all levels by The government is committed in enhancing this by provision of Community Support Grant to some selected ECDE centres across the country. CSG a KESSP programme was scheduled to run from Since the year this study was carried was 2010 it was therefore urgent to find out the success and challenges of CSG project on the ground. This study conducted in Kiambu district sorted to evaluate the impact of Community Support Grants in the ECDE centres. The literature review outlines access, quality, equity and funding of the ECDE programme in Kenya. The theoretical framework borrows from Non profit finance theory and in particular uses subsidy theory and affordability models of the same. The target population of the study was 42 public ECDE centres, ECDE head teachers, teachers and the DICECE Programme Officer. 16 teachers, 16 head teachers and the Programme Officer were used in the study. The public ECDE centres were divided into two categories, those that benefited from CSG and those that had not. The sampling technique used was Stratified Random Sampling. This enabled easy management of data and drawing of general conclusion on the problem under study. The instrument used were, questionnaires for head teachers and ECDE teachers and a check list for each ECDE centre. The data was analyzed and presented inform of tables and percentages. The study found that there was a big impact of the CSG in the development of ECDE centres in the district. The enrolment of the children had increased and retention of the children had become consistent over the terms. The quality of services had improved since materials had been bought by use of CSG. The study found out that there were challenges in the implementation of the funds in the centres. This included corruption, regular transfers and the funds provided were very little. The study recommended that all the public ECDE centres should be provided with more funds to enable long lasting projects to be initiated. The parents should be educated on their role in the ECDE centres, the government should ensure that funds are used for the right purposes and data should be updated for the enrolment of the children in all ECDE centres and should be available on dema xi

12 CHAPTER INTRODUTION 1:1 Background to the Study The United Nations Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the Jomtein Declaration of Education For All (1990), the Dakar Declaration of Education For All (2000), Millennium Development Goals and the Kenya Children Act (2001), all state that, every child is entitled to basic rights, among which education is key (Manani, 2007). The Jomtein Declaration states that, learning begins at birth, and placed Early Childhood Development and Education (ECDE) within the purview of basic education. The World Community renewed its commitment to ECDE in the Dakar Framework of Action, whose first goal was devoted to ECDE. It was concerned with expanding access to integrate ECDE services, improving their quality and ensuring equity. It is now an established fact that investment in ECDE pays off, educationally, socially and economically (UNESCO, 2003). The development of Early Childhood Education (ECE) policies in New Zealand has been underpinned by the government s vision that all children have the opportunity to participate in high-quality ECE. Funding and regulatory policies seek to balance a range of ECE-related goals and other government goals, while facilitating diversity in the ECE sector to allow them to continue to meet needs of parents. A new ECE funding system was implemented in April The overall goal of the funding system is to make high-quality ECE more accessible and affordable to families by funding on the basis of costs and supporting improvements in quality. The structure of funding rates is based on the structure of various ECE services (Munford, 2007). In Bangladesh, Preschool education is mainly the responsibility of the Education Sector, but the sector s Early Childhood Services also offer pre primary education. The age of entry into primary school is 6 years. Social Sector builds shelters, orphanages and other social institutions. In Brazil, the Education Sector became the lead sector responsible for all ECE services, namely 1

13 pre-schools and day-care centres in The federal funding authority for these services still lies with the social assistance of education. In China, the department of Education is responsible for the development and implementation of policy and regulations concerning kindergartens (UNESCO, 2003). Egypt has established the National Council for Childhood and Motherhood. It s an independent body that does not belong to a government structure but is headed by the Prime Minster. Its members include the Ministers of Education, Health and Social Affairs and other concerned ministries and national bodies. Nigeria ECDE services are run by, National Early Years Development Consultative Committee. This was established by the assistance of UNICEF and the Bernard van Leer Foundation. The committee aims at coordinating early childhood policies and programmes provided by different actors and partner in the country (UNESCO, 2003). The Government of Republic of Kenya (GOK) has demonstrated its commitment to the well being of young children, this is by signing various global policy frameworks. These forums underscore the importance of Early Childhood Education and Development, and identify challenges facing ECD sub sector (Republic of Kenya, 2006). In the 1970s the Government of Kenya stepped in to provide training, support and supervision for Early Childhood and Development centres. In 1984 the National Centre for Early Childhood Education (NACECE) was established at the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE). NACECE was responsible for the training of trainers, curriculum development, research and the coordination of ECDE. District Centres of Early Childhood Education (DICECE) were responsible for the training of teachers in the district level, inspection, community mobilization and the evaluation of local programmes (Balanchader, 2000). Despite of some significant gains in enrolment and community initiative, it was found that there was wide variation in the type and the quality of the services provided by these centres. The government evaluated the centres and the key issues were identified as follows: Access to service 2

14 was poor, particularly for the lowest income groups. Wide variations existed between centres in the level of physical facilities, training of personnel, supporting services and actives, there was lack of both policy and services for children up to three years of age, although children in this age group are increasingly using ECDE centres and much developmental damage occurs during this period, there was low public awareness of the importance of ECDE, the level of caregiver wages varied widely and the payments were irregular monitoring and supervision were inadequate and there were no linkages between pre-schools and primary schools. The level of funding was too low to allow efficient and effective programme implementation. The ability and willingness of communities to finance and manage their preschools was identified as the critical factor affecting quality and sustainability (Balanchander, 2000). The government through Sector Wide Approach to Programme Planning (SWAP) and development partners has developed the Kenya Education Sector Support Programme (KESSP), comprising of twenty three investment programmes focusing on the education sector as a whole. KESSP is based on the rationale of the overall policy goal of achieving Education for All (EFA) and the government is commitment to the attainment of the millennium development goals (MDG). The broad objective is, to give every Kenyan quality education and training no matter his or her background or socio-economic status, by providing an all inclusive quality education that is accessible and relevant (Manani, 2007). KESSP is a programme through which the government of Kenya, (MOE), development partners, civil society, community and the private sectors come together to support education sector development for the period KESSP fits within the framework of National Policy set out in the Economic Recovery Strategy (ERS). Among the twenty three investment programmes mentioned earlier, is Early Childhood Development and Education programme, (ECDE programme) (Republic of Kenya, 2005). 3

15 The ECDE investment programme, in KESSP, has been developed through a combination of analysis of national research and identification of best practice lessons from ECDE programmes and projects implemented by MOE to date. The programmes reflect efforts implemented by the government to meet the goals of International Conventions on children (1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1990 Jomtein, Education of All, and Darkar Framework of Action and 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women). The programme is geared towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals (Republic of Kenya, 2005). The overall goal of the ECDE investment programme is to enhance access, equity and quality of education for all children aged 4-5 years, especially the most vulnerable, living in Arid and Semi Arid Lands (ASALS), urban slums and pockets of poverty. By 2007, access to ECDE services was low at 35%. The national target was to raise access to ECDE services to 60% by The MOE have to ensure that all children aged 4 to 5 years, especially girls and children living in difficult circumstances have access to quality ECDE services (Republic of Kenya, 2007). One of the strategies the Ministry continues to apply to achieve these targets is the provision of Community Support Grants (CSG) to selected ECDE centres across the country. The Community Support Grants programme is an initiative of the MOE to assist ECDE centres and the communities in the disadvantaged areas of Kenya, to improve access to quality ECDE for children aged 4-5 years. The CSG is in the line with the Sessional Paper 5 in which the government has outlined among others the following policy for the ECDE sub sector: Intensify capacity building and resource mobilization with a view to empowering stakeholders to manage their ECDE facilities efficiently. The strategy to address this policy is to design a programme to build community capacities for the development and equipment of ECDE centres in partnership with stakeholders. To achieve the overall goal of the programme, CSG has been proposed as one of ECDE investments under KESSP (Republic of Kenya, 2005). 4

16 CSG is paid by the MOE directly to a special bank account established by each ECDE centre. Before funds are sent to the ECDE centre, the ECDE management committee must prepare an ECDE centre improvement plan which explains how the centre will use the CSG to increase the enrolment and improve the quality of education of children aged 4 to 5 years. The ECDE centre Improvement Plan is formally presented and approved at a special meeting of parents and community members before a centre can receive CSG from the MOE. The ECDE management committee members are trained on how to develop a quality centre improvement plan and how to successfully manage their CSG (Republic of Kenya, 2007). The CSG programme is managed in three levels. The head office, whose key responsibility is: National coordination of the Community Support Grants programme, provide support and advice to districts and national programme, planning, monitoring, evaluation and reporting. The District Education Office s responsibility is to support and advice all ECDE centres in the district selected to receive Community Support Grants, train the ECDE management committee and programme monitoring and reporting to District Education Boards and the MOE head office. Finally the community (management committee) will produce an ECDE centre improvement plan, consult members of community, implement the ECDE centre plan, manage the CSG, monitor the use of the funds and report to the District Education Officer (Republic of Kenya, 2007). The CSG is calculated using per pupil grant. This is to encourage ECDE centres to increase their enrolment. At the end of each year the ECDE management committee is required to report the total number of the children enrolled in the centre to the District Education Officer. The ECDE management committee is required to maintain or increase this enrolment level over the following year. The District Education Board has the authority to discontinue a grant if an ECDE centre fails to deliver quality education services (Republic of Kenya, 2005). 5

17 Early Childhood Development and Education programmes are intended to accelerate learning at ECDE level especially through increased access to ECDE services offered. Some of the objectives of ECDE programmes in Kenya includes: To provide education geared towards development of the child s mental and physical capabilities. To improve the status of the child s health, care and nutritional needs, and link him or her with health services such as immunization, health check-ups, growth monitoring and promotion as well as to enrich the child s experiences to enable him or her cope better with primary school life (Manani, 2007). The Community Support Grants can be used to improve existing infrastructure of ECDE centres such as permanent and semi-permanent classrooms, toilets, school furniture and learning materials. They can also be used to augment teachers salaries at a maximum of Kshs.2000 per month per centre. To receive Community Support Grants the selected centres must establish a bank account in a recognized local bank. A detailed CSG guideline must be followed on how to account for the money provided by the grant. All grant receiving ECDE centres management committees are trained in basic financial management (Republic of Kenya, 2005). Kiambu district is an administrative area in central province in Kenya. Like any other district in the country, some of its selected ECDE centres have been provided with Community Support Grants from the year 2007 to date. This is with aim of meeting the goals of the grants. The DICECE programme officer and the other officers have been trained on how the funds should be managed. This is to enable them to train the head teachers, ECDE teachers and all the stake holders on the same. Guideline books have been provided to them for training and learning. 1:2 Statement of the Problem Education as a Right to every person is fundamental to the success of the government s overall development strategy. It aims at enhancing the ability of the Kenyans to preserve and utilize the environment for production gain and sustainable livelihood, develop quality human resource and development, and development and protection of democratic institution and human rights 6

18 (Republic of Kenya, 2005 Sessional Paper No 1). To make this paper operational the government and its partner have developed the KESSP. This is the Kenyan tool for achieving Millennium Development Goals. The Kenyan government has instituted ECDE Community Support Grants as one of the major component of the 23 national investment programmes. The Ministry of Education expects that all the ECDE centres that benefited from CSG have improved on access, equity and quality of services given. An officer in charge of CSG from MOE (Wanyama, 2009), in a seminar of DICECE officers in KIE, argued that though CSG had been provided in all parts of the country, there still seemed to be a problem because school going age children were still commonly seen loitering around various towns and markets in the country during school days. At the same time the DEO Kiambu district feels that quality of ECDE had not improved. He therefore suggested to the DICECE Office, to conduct a monitoring and evaluation exercise of all ECDE centres that had benefited from the CSG in the whole country. This is to ascertain that the actual impact on access, quality and equity on all ECDE centres (Wachira, 2009). The KESSP programme was scheduled to run from Now that this is year 2010, it is urgent to find out the success and challenges of the project on the ground. There seem to be no study conducted on this important area, a gap that this study seems to fill. This has made it necessary to carry out a study to identify the gap in the knowledge regarding the impact of CSG on the development of ECDE in Kiambu District. Issues of access, equity and quality should be treated with the seriousness they deserve. If not, they increase curbed opportunities that would otherwise be available for the young children to advance in holistic development. This in the long run will make it difficult for Kenya to achieve not only the goals of education but also interfere with the rights of the children negatively. 7

19 1:3 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to establish the impact of Community Support Grants on the development of the ECDE centres, as a government investment programme in enhancing access, quality and equity of education for all children aged 4-5 years in Kiambu District. 1:4 Research Objectives This study had the following objectives: 1. To find out whether there was any relationship between Community Support Grants and the enrolment of the children in ECDE centres. 2. To investigate the relationship between Community Support Grants and use of resource materials in ECDE centre Kiambu District. 3. To find out whether Community Support Grants, have any effect on gender balance of children in ECDE centre in Kiambu District. 4. To find out whether Community Support Grants have any effect on the retention of children in the ECDE centre of Kiambu District. 1:5 Research Questions 1. What was the relationship between Community Support Grants and the enrolment of the children to Early Childhood Development and Education centres in Kiambu District? 2. What was the relationship between Community Support Grants and the use of resource materials in ECDE centre in Kiambu District? 3. What was the effect of Community Support Grants in gender balance of children in ECDE centres in Kiambu District? 4. What was the effect of Community Support Grants on retention of children the ECDE 8

20 centres in Kiambu District? 1:6 Significance of the Study It was expected that this study would be useful to the ECDE parents, community members and the development partners. It would help them understand what Community Support Grants are and how the grants should be used. The DEO Kiambu and entire DICECE office of Kiambu would find this study useful particularly on actual benefits of the grants on access, equity and quality of ECDE. The Ministry of Education may use the finding of this study in policy formulation regarding the funding of ECDE centres in the country. This study sought to add growth of knowledge on how funds are used in ECDE centres. It would also help future researchers to identify priority areas to carry out more research on children and funding of ECDE. 1:7 Basic Assumptions of the Study This study assumed that the information received from both the head teachers and the ECDE teachers was accurate and it was a true reflection of the impact of the Community Support Grants in Kiambu District and that the archival data would be available from the DICECE office and will be accurate for the purpose of this study. It also assumed that all the ECDE centres selected to benefit with the CSG had received at least one traunche of the grants and had already used the funds. 1:8 Limitations of the Study The study used survey design. The samples were collected from a sample population of ECDE teachers and head teachers but not all the head teachers and teachers of the centres in the district. The information was collected the way it was at that particular time. It could be possible that the information could have been different at other times. The research relied on the information 9

21 given by the head teachers and the ECDE teachers and their own opinions. This generated diverse responses from the same question. The researcher was unable to control the attitudes of the respondents and this may have affected the findings. They might have imposed their own attitude towards the subject under study. The distance to be covered by the researcher was very wide and generated a lot of problems in transportation. Some of the respondents seemed to fear the researcher, who was a DICECE officer, for being victimized. However they were assured of confidentiality of the information that they gave and that it was only used for study purposes. It was also possible that the sampled Kiambu District results, may not apply to other administrative districts in Kenya. 1:9 Delimitations of the Study The study relied on a few samples of 16 ECDE centres drawn from the whole geographical area of Kiambu District. They are all public schools. The whole district has 42 public ECDE centres. The study therefore excluded more than half of the ECDE centres which may be could have had a lot of impact of the Community Support Grants. The study also narrowed on to the ECDE centres that were easily accessible. This might have hindered the researcher from achieving the correct findings for the whole district. 1:10 Organization of the Study This study was organized in five chapters, the Introduction, and literature review, research methodology, results of research findings summery, recommendations and the conclusions of the study. The introduction chapter looked at the major international conventions and agreements that address the ECDE. The study looked at how the countries like Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt and Nigeria manage the ECDE. It also looked at the way Kenya manages the ECDE services. The role of KESSP and CSG was also discussed. The statement of the problem is indicated in this section, the purpose of the study, research questions, and research objectives, significance of the study, basic assumptions, and limitations of the study, delimitations, and 10

22 operational terms used in this study. At the end of this section is a list of abbreviations and acronyms. In the second chapter there is the Literature Review which looked at the access, equity, quality and the way in which ECDE is funded in Kenya. Theoretical framework is in this section, which borrowed borrow from Finance, an economic theory of nonprofit making organizations. The study was mainly focused on Subsidy theory, one of the theories of nonprofit making organizations. The study used Affordability Approach Funding Model for Early Childhood Services. Conceptual framework of this study is presented at the end of this section. The third chapter focused on Research Design, population of the study, sampling techniques, instruments to be used, validity and reliability of the instruments, procedure for data collection and data analysis. The fourth chapter has the data analysis which was presented in diagrams, percentages, means and modes. The data is analyzed by use of factor analysis. All the diagrams have been explained below each one of them. In the last chapter there is the summary, presentation and the conclusion of the research finding. It also contains the recommendations and suggestions for further research. The references, appendices which have the questionnaires, check list, financial budget and the time frame, is at the end of the study. The title page, declaration, the abstract, dedication, the table of content, lists of tables and figures used in the study are at the beginning of the study. 11

23 1:11 Definition of the Terms Access- Enrolment of children to ECDE centres. It involves attendance and retention of children at school in Kiambu District. Community Members- Parents of the children who attend the ECDE centre. This includes the people who support the activities of ECDE centres in Kiambu District. ECDE centre- A school, where early childhood services are given to children below six years in Kiambu District. This generally involves early childhood development services and education. Equity- Fairness and justice in availability of benefits, access and the control of resources. Both Boy and girls should have equal opportunity in ECDE services offered in Kiambu District. Grants- Funds or money allocated and dispatched to a particular ECDE centre, in Kiambu District for the purpose of its development. Management Committee- A body elected to run the affairs of an ECDE centre. The Management Committee members, community leaders, prominent members of the community, religious leaders, business people and sponsors in Kiambu District. Programme-This is a plan of the activities to be carried out, in order to achieve certain in an ECDE centre in Kiambu District. Quality- The degree of excellence in ECDE, in terms of relevant use of, learning/teaching materials and the qualification of the teachers from Kiambu District. Traunche- A batch of money dispatched to an ECDE centre in Kiambu District. In each Phase of CSG there are 2 or 3 traunches. 12

24 1:12 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ASALS Arid and Semi Arid Lands CEDEW Convention on the elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women CRC CSG DEB - Convention on the Rights of the Child. -Community Support Grants -District Education Board DICECE- District Centre of Early Childhood Education ECDE Early Childhood Development and Education EFE ERS -Education for All -Economic Rectory strategy FPE -Free Primary Education GER Gross Enrolment Ratio GOK Government of Kenya KESSP - Kenya Education Sector Support Programme KIE -Kenya Institute of Education MDG Millennium Development Goals MOE -Ministry of Education NACECE-National Centre for Early Childhood Education NARC- National Alliance Rainbow Coalition SWAP - Sector Wide Approach to Programme Planning UNDHR - United Nations Declaration of Human Right Women UNESCO-United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization OECD- Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development 13

25 CHAPTER LITERATURE REVIEW Literature Review means the work that a researcher consults in order to understand and investigate the research problem. It is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. It is a critical look at the existing research that is significant to the work that the researcher will be carrying. It involves examining documents such as books, magazines, journals and dissertations that have a bearing on the study being concluded (Kombo and Tromp, 2006). 2:1 Access to ECDE Programmes The provision of ECDE involves households, community and Government efforts in the integrated development of children from the time of conception. The structure of ECDE provision is divided into that for 0-3 year olds and for 4-5 year olds children. For this sub sector, the MOE s policy is to focus on 4-5 year old children with a view to provide a holistic and intergraded programme that meets the child s cognitive, social, moral, spiritual, emotional and physical needs (Republic of Kenya, 2005). Today the ECDE programme is serving more than 900, 000 children. Free Primary Education (FPE) has increased the potential for all children to attend school. However all children need to be equally ready to learn and hence maximize their opportunities within the FPE: therefore, the aim is to have 100% participation in ECDE to ensure an adequate foundation for education. Presently, there is low access to preschools (40% nationally and in some districts less than 20%) necessitating increased support for this age sector (Republic of Kenya, 2006). Kenya whose population in 1992 was 25 million, has one of the highest population growth rate in the world (3.8%), 59% of the population was under 20 years of age: 18% were under the age five, many of whom are in preschools because of the commitment of parents and the community 14

26 to providing a preschool experience for the child. The first preschools were started in the 1940s by and for the exclusive use of the European and Asian communities. Later preschools were developed in African locations in urban areas and in coffee, tea and sugar plantations. After independence, preschool education expanded throughout the country (Kipkorir and Njenga, 1993). An important variable in the wide spread availability of preschools is the Harambee of self-help spirit which the late President Kenyatta fostered. In essence what this means is that, when a community defines a need, it creates a programme to meet that need. In many villages parents have wanted preschools for their children and so they have created them. They find a location for the class and look for a teacher to care for children 3-6 years of age. As a result early childhood care and education programmes in Kenya serve the entire cross-section of social, economic, culture and geographic groups within the society. Several events during the 1980s shaped the way in which preschool services are being offered nationally. In 1980 responsibility for pre schools was shifted from the Ministry of Culture and Social services to the Ministry of Education which is now responsible for the administration of pre schools. The MOE has an infrastructure that is able to provide support to pre schools anywhere in the country. In 1983 they were moved to decentralize government. The focus of development was shifted to the district level. The result of this shift is that district and local government have taken on the main responsibility for ongoing support of preschool education, while MOE is involved in the formulation of policy guidelines for early childhood programmes, registration of pre schools, coordination of government grants and funds from external donors, and provision of early childhood personnel at all levels (Kipkorir and Njenga, 1993). The ECDE sub sector has witnessed significant growth within the last few years, the ECDE centres have increased from 26,294 in 2000 to 31,879 in Total enrolment in public ECDE centres rose from 1,255,194 in 2000 to 1,602,721 in The Gross Enrolment Rate at this level of education increased to 57.6% in 2004 from 44.8% in Whereas the growth in enrolment is a welcome development, there s a concern over the Gross Enrolment Rate in ECDE 15

27 at 57.6%, when compared to that of the primary school level, which stood at 10.8%in 2002 (Republic of Kenya, 2006). In the area of ECDE, since approximately % of children aged 3-5 years currently have been accessing ECDE services. Kenya is the fourth in Africa with only Mauritius, Namibia and Ghana having a higher proportion of children receiving ECDE services. There is a recent decline in enrolments however with the introduction of FPE, since the parents have to pay for ECDE services (Ministry of Education, 2003). An assessment study of FPE carried out jointly by the MOE and UNESCO in February 2004 found that ECDE programmes had almost collapsed because children s enrolments had decreased after the introduction of FPE. The study found that, parents opted to send their children straight to standard one, which had become free, without having them go through ECDE, which was still fee-paying. Moreover, most of the standard one, teachers reported that, children who skipped ECDE had difficulty coping with the lessons in primary schools and performed poorly. Since the introduction of FPE policy in the North Eastern Province, which is one of the poorest, many parents have bypassed ECDE altogether, many others send their children only to the Pre Unit class of ECDE to prepare them for primary school. In some areas, parents are keeping their children at home until they reach the age of 5 years and more, entitling them to free education, this tendency is particularly pronounced among poor families who cannot afford ECDE centres (UNESCO, 2005). 2:2 Quality in ECDE Programmes The Ministry of Education s mandate has been expanded to cater for the early care, development and education needs of young children. Awareness has been raised with regards to the importance of an integrated approach to the holistic development of the child. Yet gaps appear in practice. Service for children under the age of three years are not well developed, and the activities of ECDE centres focus heavily on teaching young children basic learning skills. Many stakeholders still view ECDE as early schooling. Parenting education could be a good strategy for enhancing the care and education of younger children, and training is needed for ECDE teachers (UNESCO, 2005). 16

28 The government is already implementing measures that seek to improve the performance of this sub sector. These measures include: establishing guidelines and standards for the management, supervision and curriculum development for ECDE; establishment of NACECE and DICECE for purposes of in servicing teachers and training. NACECE is located within the Kenya Institute of Education and it is responsible for: developing and disseminating curricula for ECDE programmes; identifying, designing, undertaking and coordinating ECDE research; facilitating interaction between agencies and sponsors; coordinating and liaising with external partners; and informing the public of needs and developments within the ECDE programmes (Republic of Kenya, 2005). The functions of DICECE are: training of preschool teachers and other personnel at the district level; supervision and inspection of district preschool programmes; mobilization of local community to improve the care, health, nutrition and education of young children; development of localized preschool curricula; and evaluation and research related to the preschool children. The DICECE are staffed by NACECE trained trainers, accountable to the District Education Officers for their day-to-day operation (Evans and Myers, 1994). According to ECDE service guidelines, only the approved ECDE syllabus shall be used in ECDE centres. Learning shall be holistic in nature. Child centred teaching/learning methodology shall be used in these centres. Learning shall be activity based hence no subjects will be taught in ECDE centres. Learning shall be through play. Adequate materials shall be provided by the teachers. The children shall be given an opportunity to manipulate materials and opportunities for free choice activities and rest (Republic of Kenya, 2007). In order to provide quality ECDE, it is important to develop relevant and suitable curricula and resources. NACECE and DICECE have developed a variety of curricula and support materials for use at all levels. They are in form of, syllabus, guidelines and books, manipulative materials, audio and visual packages (KIE, 1992). 17

29 2:3 Equity in ECDE Programmes Successful implementation of the Strategic Plan is expected to address equity and gender imbalance, improve the learning environment for both boys and girls, including those with disabilities and special needs and consequently improve the human capital for Kenya s economy. (Republic of Kenya, 2006) In recognition of the importance of gender equity and equality in education, both the government and its partners have developed strategies and implemented a variety of initiative to address gender in education, through a harmonized frame work and gender in education. Within government, legal issues being addressed through a harmonized framework and gender issues are addressed in all programmes. The National Plan of Action on EFA , the report of the education sector review 2003, the Ministry of Education strategic plan ( ) and service charter, Sessional Paper Number 1 of 2005 and the KESSP (Republic of Kenya, 2007). The government has also ratified a number of protocols and conventions with a bearing on gender equity. These include the CEDAW and the CRC among others. The government has also set up Ministry of Gender, Sports, Sport, Culture and Social Services and a Gender Commission. The Ministry of Education has established a National Task Force for Gender and Education, a Ministerial Task Force on Girls Education, and a Gender Desk. Enrolment in ECDE institutions remained below 50% in 1990s, but Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) increased from 44.8% in 2002 to 57.7% in The national gross enrolment ratio revealed small but rising gender disparity of 19.7% with more girls than boys being enrolled (boys 119.3% and girls 139.7%). North Eastern Province had the highest gender disparity in favour of boys at 6.5%. On the other hand, the net enrolment ratio increased from 31% in 2002 to 32.9% in 2005, and showed near gender parity at the national level at 0.6% kin 2003 and 1% in A critical gender inequity at this level is that only 12.6% of teachers were male in 2004 (Republic of Kenya, 2007). A study done by (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization) UNESCO and (Origination for Economic Cooperation and Development) OECD in February 2005, in Kenya started that there was obvious geographical inequities in ECDE. In Nairobi for instance 18

30 more children were likely to be enrolled in ECDE than in other provinces with similar poverty levels e.g. Rift Valley. North Eastern Province has the highest rates. There are also gender disparities in Nairobi; girls are likely to enroll where as in North Eastern Province the reverse is observed (UNESCO, 2005). To enhance enrolment in primary schools on equal grounds, free primary education has increased the potential for all children to attend school. However, all children need to be equally ready to learn and to hence maximize their opportunities within the FPE; therefore the aim is to have 100% participation in ECDE to ensure an adequate foundation for education. Presently, there is low access to pre-schools (40% nationally and in some districts less than 20%) necessitating increased support for his age sector (Republic of Kenya, 2006). 2:4 Funding Of ECDE Programmes Majority of the pre schools centres in Kenya have been established and are managed by the local communities. It is therefore important to create awareness and mobilize the communities in order to ensure that they improve the preschool facilities and services. (KIE, 1992) One of the unique characteristics and strengths of the ECDE programmes in Kenya is its policy of encouraging partnerships, at all levels. Parents and local communities are the most important partners. They have started and currently manage over 75% of the preschools in the country. Parents and local communities provide land and funds for the construction and maintaince of the physical facilities. They also provide furniture, materials and labour and they pay the teachers salaries. In some communities feeding programmes are also a part of the preschool programmes; parents provide the ingredients and prepare the food (Evans and Myers, 1994). Complementing the work of the community are local authorities who pick up the costs for equipment, furnishing and the teacher s salary in preschools in the town centres. Fees are charged in these schools to help cover the costs. From the beginning, voluntary organizations, religious bodies and companies have been heavily involved in preschool provision. Religious 19

31 groups have established their own preschools in the church/temple/mosque. Firms, cooperatives, and plantations have also established preschools for children of their employees. The main support from these preschools is the provision of physical facilities, materials, furniture, feeding programmes and payment of teachers salaries (Evans and Myers, 1994). The Ministries involved in preschool provision include the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Culture and Social Services, in addition to the Ministry of Education. As noted earlier, external partners have been and continue to be important. Over the years these have included the Bernard Van Leer Foundation, the Aga Khan Foundation, and UNICEF, who have provided financial support for the training of teachers, the purchasing of equipment and materials, curriculum development, parental and community education. NACECE has taken on the primary responsibility for coordinating the actions of the various partners and involving them in a meaningful way (Evans and Myres, 1994). Participation of various partners has been very instrumental in the NACECE and DICECE operations. The main partners are the government through the Ministry of Education, local government and Health, parents and local communities, NGOs, private entrepreneurs and bilateral partners, namely UNICEF, Bernard Van Leer Foundation and Aga Khan Foundation. UNICEF which focuses on the welfare of children and families has been involved in ECDE programmes in Kenya for the past four decades. When DICECE was established in 1985, UNICEF offered to support activities in six DICECEs (KIE, 1992). It has provided financial resources which have been used in training of personnel, in community mobilization, curriculum development, health and nutrition programmes and in research and evaluation. During Plan of Action, UNICEF extended support to five more districts through the Child Survival and Development (CSD) programme (KIE, 1992). The main achievements of the programme include the growth in terms of personnel institutions and enrolment, increased community awareness and mobilization as evidenced by the increase in 20

32 enrolment and number of centres, improved facilities and the establishment of community based feeding programmes and growth monitoring and promotion of quality experiences and services for the children, particularly on issues related to the care, health and nutrition and early stimulation (KIE, 1992). 2:5:0 Theoretical Frame work A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated ideas based on theories. It is reasoned set of prepositions, which are derived from and supported by data or evidence. It accounts for or explains phenomena. It attempts to clarify why things are the way they are on theories (Kombo and Tromp, 2000). 2:5:1 Nonprofit Finance Theory: Subsidy Theory This study will borrow from Nonprofit Finance theory, which is an economic theory developed in mid 1960 s due to increased number and forms of nonprofit making organizations in the economy. It approaches the role and behaviour of nonprofit organizations in the economy. One of nonprofit finance theory is subsidy theory. Subsidy theory states that nonprofit organizations are unusually in the manner in which they finance themselves. The nonprofit organizations do not rely entirely on sales of goods and services. They do not have power of taxation through which they can command public support. They receive more support from voluntary gifts and grants than other types of organizations. The activities of nonprofit organization heavily depend on different external resources, direct and indirect grants and subsidies from the government (Young, 2000) This study will adopt the subsidy theory and will focus on affordability approach model for Early Childhood Service. This is one of the models of subsidy theory. This model has been advocated by Christians P and Karen F (Social Policy Research Centre University of New South Wales). It has been adopted by Australia government. This is a model of the approaches that are open to the 21