Lecture 12 - Operational Amplifier circuits III - output amplifiers

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1 Lecture 1 - Operational mplifier circuits III - output amplifiers he third and final stage of an Op-mp is the output stage. It must have high input impedance (to match the high output impedance of the Darlington), and low output impedance, to give the completed Op-mp the desired output characteristics. he required circuit is therefore a common-collector, or emitter-follower amplifier. he following discussion can be broadened to all power amplifiers - i.e. amplifiers that can deliver high currents into a load (i.e. high current gain) with maximum efficiency (i.e. low output impedance and quiescent current). Class amplifiers Class amplifiers are biased ON for of the input signal cycle. hey are therefore inefficient (high quiescent power dissipation), but have low distortion. Class B amplifiers Class B amplifiers are biased ON for 50 % of the full cycle. hey have no quiescent power dissipation, but have high distortion. Class B amplifiers Class B amplifiers combine the properties of a class and class B amplifiers. hey are ON for > 50 % of the signal cycle, have small quiescent power dissipation, but high distortion. Class C amplifiers Class C amplifiers are ON for < 50 % of the clock cycle, and have no quiescent power dissipation, but have high distortion. Mark 1 emitter-follower V BE Figure 1.1. Class C emitter-follower For a simple emitter-follower (EF), transistor only conducts for > V BE(on) V. herefore transistor is only on for portion of cycle that is less than 50 % of the cycle. his is a class C amplifier. here is collector current ONLY for large enough signal current, but no quiescent current. No output for remainder of signal cycle high distortion. < 50 % Figure 1.. Current/voltage waveforms for class C emitter-follower. D. R. S. Cumming, University of Glasgow Page 1 of 5

2 Mark emitter-follower + V BIS R E V BIS - V BE Figure 1.4. Class EF amplifier. he amplifier is DC biased so that transistor is on for full signal cycle. Require V BIS > V peak + V BE(on) to ensure transistor is always on. his is a class amplifier. Quiescent I CQ Q (V BIS - )/R E. Current flow for whole cycle inefficient. Output voltage follows input for whole signal cycle low distortion. I Q (V BIS - V BE)/R E Figure 1.5. Class EF current/voltage waveforms. Mark emitter-follower - the push-pull amplifier V CC Q VEE Figure 1.6. Class C npn and pnp emitter followers. Figure 1.7. Class C push-pull amplifier. Figure 1.6 shows how npn and pnp based class C amplifiers are built. he two circuits complement each other, and operate from complementary power supplies (i.e. -V CC ). he two circuits can be combined (Fig. 1.7) to make a class C push-pull amplifier. here is no bias voltage added to - this is a DC coupled amplifier. R E is no longer an integral part of the circuit - it is an EXERNL load. > V, conducts, Q is off. pushes current from V CC through R E to ground. < -V, is off and Q conducts. Q pulls current from ground through R E to. D. R. S. Cumming, University of Glasgow Page of 5

3 -V < < V, both and Q are off. No output current or voltage. V BEn he class C push-pull amplifier suffers from cross-over distortion. his arises from the part of the input signal cycle for which neither transistor is turned on. i.e.: V BEp -V < < V, Q OFF cross-over distortion However, unlike the single transistor class C amplifier, the circuit does operated in the negative half cycle (c.f. Figs. 1.1 and 1.), since the pnp and npn transistors complement each other. Nevertheless, this is a high distortion amplifier. Current flow is only in response to input signal, so the circuit is efficient. < 50 % Figure 1.8. Current voltage waveforms of class C push-pull emitter-follower amplifier. Mark 4 emitter-follower - the class B and class B push-pull amplifier diode bias current V D Q bias current RB1 RB Q Q VEE Figure 1.9. Class B amplifier with bias diodes. Figure Class B amplifier with V BE multiplier. By using a small amount of base bias, it is possible to eliminate cross-over distortion. For class B operation, we have: > 0V, on, Q off and < 0V, Q on, off and D. R. S. Cumming, University of Glasgow Page of 5

4 0V, Q on, on and In a class B amplifier, each transistor operates for exactly 50 % of the cycle. In Fig. 1.9 the input is applied to the base of Q. here is a base-bias current that ensures the voltage difference is diode voltage drops (V D ) between the bases of and Q. his should exactly compensate for the base-emitter drops of the transistors. he circuit is rarely used for two reasons - it is easier to build transistors on an IC, and V D is not guaranteed to equal V BEp + V BEn. class B amplifier is biased to guarantee that either or Q is on for any part of the input cycle. It uses attributes from the class and class B circuits (hence the designation). Figure RB shows a class B amplifier. he amplifier of Fig VCE uses a V BE multiplier (Q, R B1 and R B ). RB When Q is biased in the forward active region, then the voltage drop across R B V BE V. he collector-emitter voltage drop will therefore be Figure 1.1. V BE multiplier. V CE R B1 + R V B BE. R Class B operation requires V CE > V BEn + V BEp of output transistors and Q to ensure that there is no part of the signal cycle for which they are both off. here is a small quiescent current and there is no cross-over distortion. B Figure 1.1. Current/voltage waveforms of class B emitterfollower. Harmonic distortion lthough the class B push-pull amplifier will be free of cross-over distortion, there will still be some distortion of the signal. here is no voltage gain in the circuit, only current gain. he voltage gain in the Op-mp circuit is in the Darlington amplifier stage, hence the input to the emitterfollower will be large. he voltage swings may in fact be close to V CC and. he emitter follower is therefore operating as a LRGE SIGNL amplifier. he circuit will not be in the linear small signal domain, and the transfer function will be EXPONENIL since V αi I I exp BE E C S 1 and v o R E V I C R E /α. he series expansion of an exponential is x x x e 1+ x ! For small signals (x << 1), e x is approximately linear, but for large values, the high order terms dominate. herefore, D. R. S. Cumming, University of Glasgow Page 4 of 5

5 ( v V ) ( v V ) I I v V + in + in +... C S in, since V BE v in.! he first term is linear, and does not distort the signal. he polynomial (quadratic, cubic, etc) terms will generate HRMONICS. If v in cosωt, where ω is the FUNDMENL frequency then the quadratic term is 1 v V in 1 v 6 V in V 6V cos ωt 4V cosωt 1V ( 1+ cos ωt), and the cubic term is ( 1+ cos ωt) cosωt ( cosωt + cosωt) Clearly, we could carry on to infinity for all the terms, generating successively more accurate values for the COEFFICNS for each of the cosine terms that contain multiples or harmonics of the fundamental frequency (ω, ω, etc). For each harmonic we add up all the coefficients to produce the amplitude of the signal generated at that frequency, such that 4V I R R v C E E out ( H1 cosωt + H cos ωt + H cosωt +...) α α he first order linear term (H 1 ) is NO a distortion term whereas all higher terms are. Emitter degeneration R B1 R B Q V CC R D1 R D Q R E Figure 1.1. Class B with additional emitter resistors. he addition of emitter "degeneration" resistors reduces distortion. Previously, we had V BE. his is not true for Fig. 1.1 since there will be a voltage drop across the degeneration resistors R D1 or R D between the input and the output. he overall change in V BE will be reduced to V BE v in - R D, thus the non-linearity will be reduced. i.e. I R v I R v I R S E exp in E D out E E 1 α V where R D R D1 R D. he effect of R D is to introduce negative or degenerative feedback (note minus sign in exponential), hence desensitising and linearising the circuit. he overall evaluation of the harmonics generated by the circuit is now more complex (and will not be treated in detail!). he resistors R D1 and R D also have a protective function. In the event that the output is short-circuited, they will limit the current in or Q, preventing damage. Base bias he base bias circuit (see Fig. 1.10) requires a constant current source. his is supplied using current mirror techniques, as normal.. D. R. S. Cumming, University of Glasgow Page 5 of 5

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