CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPTS, AND THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK. scholars and also an article of journal with related topic are worth reviewing on

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1 9 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPTS, AND THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Literature Review To support the discussion and analysis of the study, some theses on preposition and translation equivalence that have been done by some previous scholars and also an article of journal with related topic are worth reviewing on this study. Some of them are considered to have a relationship and their own significance to the object of this study. Laba (2007) did a similar study on prepositional phrase and translation equivalence in his thesis entitled An Equivalence Analysis of English Locative Prepositional Phrase In Indonesian. In his study he discusses about the types of lexical and syntactical forms of English locative prepositional phrases found in Indonesian and also the types of procedures, shifts, and the principles of translation. The findings of his analysis show that in order to get the closest natural equivalence in doing the translation job, the translator has to take into account the different translation procedure, shift, and also the principle of translation such as loss, gain and skewing of information. They are all unavoidable in the process of translation. His study is similarly related to this study in terms of the process of translation discussion, but the difference lies on the type of object of the study, namely the previous one is the prepositional 9

2 10 phrases with the prepositions at, in, and on, while this current one is that of by, with, and without. So his study gives a significant contribution to support the discussion and analysis of this current study. Apart from the above previous study, a similar study on preposition and translation equivalence conducted by Astajaya (2006) entitled The Translation of English Preposition of In The Novel Elephants Can Remember Into Indonesian. He adopts the theory of translation equivalence suggested by Nida (1975) to complete his study. The finding of his analysis is the English preposition translated into Indonesian still keeps challenging. The result shows loss of information occurs in the translation of English preposition of. But the analysis of translation equivalence into the target language does not involve detailed arguments why loss of information exists, if it is seen from the readers point of view. However, it is still related and a great deal of importance to complete this current study. The other scholar conducting the translation equivalence is Pastini (2004). The object of her study is noun phrase. This is described in her thesis entitled The Translation Equivalence of Noun Phrase In The Novel Harry Potter And The Chamber of Secret. To support her study, she adopts the concept and theory from Nida (1974) and Catford (1965). In the findings of her study, she states the principle of loss and gain of information take place in every transfer of source language into target language. Such a principle of translation is shown through a shift of translation. But her study does not involve the elaboration and integration

3 11 of the principle and shift of translation with the translation procedures. Anyway, it still keeps the relationship and valuable support to this current study for the discussion and analysis. The next study entitled Skewing in English Indonesian Translation was conducted by Sujaya (2003). This study is worth reviewing in terms of skewing of information for the valuable supporting benefit of this current study. In his study, he discusses and analyzes four kinds of skewing between illocutionary force and grammatical forms of interrogative, declarative, negative, and ironic sentences conveying various functions and meanings. His study is also very useful to complete the recent study, particularly in interpreting, investigating, and identifying the skewed prepositional phrases. For further study, Badrawan (2004) discusses about the translation strategies or procedures in his thesis entitled Strategies For Translating English Relative Clause in Bhagawad Gita into Indonesian. There are three points discussed in his problems of study, namely, the types of relative clause found in the source language, kinds of strategies adopted in translating those relative clauses from English into Indonesian, and also the relationship between the type of relative clause and the strategy of translating. The result of his research discussion and analysis indicates the types of relative clauses that are found in source language are finite relative clauses with relative pronoun who, which, and that as subject, with or without relative pronoun who, whom, which, and that as object, with relative pronoun whose, of which, with antecedent referring to place

4 12 (where), with antecedent referring to time (when) and non-finite relative clause (reduced clause) with present participle and past participle. Most of relative clauses in source language are translated directly into yang in Indonesian as a target language. Relative pronoun in which (where) is translated into tempat, and relative pronoun when is translated into ketika. The strategies that are adopted to translate English relative clause into Indonesian are literal, modulation, and transposition. Most of the data have good relation between the types of relative clause and strategies because not all of them have parallel structures. In this case he states that in order to be able to translate the types of relative clause from the source language into target language in a proper way, we also need to adopt a proper strategy to translate them after identifying their own types. So his study is also very beneficial and related to support this current study. The article of journal entitled The Problems of Translating Preposition in Shakespearean Othello into Arabic written by Agha and Salih (2007) is aimed at finding the occurrence of the prepositional phrase both in Englsih and Arabic. The theory used in the study is theory developed by Nida (1964) which is about two types of equivalence that are formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence The study also explains about the function of the prepositional phrase and the position where the preposition is usually occurs that is relevance to this study. However, the difference of their study to this study is on the specification of the prepositional phrase. On their study, it includes all types of prepositional phrase while this study only focuses on the translation of the prepositional phrase by,

5 13 with, and without, besides, in their study, the target language is Arabic, they analyze the English prepositional phrase existing on the Shakespearean Othello with its translation into Arabic by applying Nida s formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence, whereas this study focuses on the translation of prepositional phrase by, with, and without into Indonesian by applying some theories. Anyway, it is still related and a great deal of importance to complete this current study. 2.2 Concepts To support the analyzed data, several notions or concepts have to be considered to obtain the understanding the basic or main points in relation to the topic of this study, its problem, and scope of the study. The concepts are based on some ideas, statements, or theories having been proposed by some experts in the field of translation and grammar or linguistics, particularly in the translation equivalence (procedures, principles, and shifts), of the English prepositional phrases with prepositions by, with, and without in Indonesian Translation Since there are many theories of translation having been suggested by the experts, in this study only the theories related to the topic and its problems are described. To support this study in analyzing the translation equivalence, there are some definitions of translation quoted from the sources of theories as mentioned below:

6 14 Catford (1965:1) states that translation is an operation performed on language: a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in another. He further explains that the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (Catford, 1965:20). Along with such a statement, the term textual material underlines the fact that in normal condition, it is not the whole of a source (SL) text is translated, that is, replaced by target language (TL) equivalent, at one or more levels of language there may be simple replacement, by non equivalent target language (TL) material, into target language (TL) text (Catford, 1965:20-21). The key concept in this definition is equivalence, which should be natural or in accordance with the context. Larson (1984:6) in her book entitled Meaning Based Translation states that translation consists of transferring the meaning of the source language (SL) into target language (TL). He further says that translation consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context (Larson, 1984:3). This type of translation maintains the meaning, not the form. There are two types of translation. The first one is form-based translation and the second is meaning-based translation. The first type is a form of translation mainly based on the form of the source language and it usually referred to as literal translation, while the second one is referred to as idiomatic translation, a type of translation

7 15 that attempts to make every effort to transform the meaning of the source language text in the natural forms of the receptor language. Larson (1998:4) simply presents the diagram of the translation process as follows: Source Language Target Language Text to be translated Translation Discover the meaning Re-express the meaning MEANING The Diagram of Translation Process Figure 1, Larson (1998:4) Another perception or theory of translation proposed by Nida also points out that translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, firstly in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style (Nida, 1975:95). He further sys that in translating process, meaning must be preserved as the main and the most essential issue, then the translator must pay attention to the style of the author. The result of translation must be as close equivalent as possible to the source language and the same time, the naturalness and author s style must be preserved too. In this case, the stressing on the term closest natural equivalent is made in order that the equivalent forms should not be strange both in form and the meaning. In other word, a good translation should not reveal its non-native source.

8 16 In line with the above, Bell (1991:13) mentions that the aim of translation is to reproduce as accurately as possible all grammatical and lexical features of the source language original by finding equivalents in the target language. At the same time all factual information contained in the original text must be retained in the translation. In the definition, he has just seen the term translation is given two meanings. He would suggest that there are, in fact, three distinguishable meanings for the word of first, translating, that is, the process (to translate the activity rather than the tangible object); second, a translation, that is, the product of the process of the translating (the translated text); the third, translation, namely, the abstract concept that encompasses both the process of translating and the product of the process. In this case it is clear that a translation theory, to be comprehensive, integral, and beneficial, must attempt to give an illustration both the process and the product Translation Equivalence Based on the above descriptions, it is understandable that the term equivalence plays an important role in the translation process. It is frequently stated that the main problem in translation is to find out the equivalent of the target language translation form in the source language. Catford (1965:50) explains the condition for translation equivalence occurs when SL and TL text or items rarely have the same meaning in the linguistic sense, but they can function in the same situation. In the total translation, SL and TL texts or items are translated with their equivalents when

9 17 they are interchangeable in a given situation. That is why equivalence can nearly always be established at sentence rank. Since the sentence is the grammatical unit that most directly related to speech-function within a situation. In line with this, Bell (1991:6) suggests that a text in different languages can be equivalent in different degrees (fully or partially equivalent) in respect of different levels of presentation (equivalent in respect of context, of semantics, of grammar, of lexis, etc.) and at different ranks (word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase, sentence-for-sentence). Nida in Venuti (2000:134) describes two different types of equivalence, which might be referred to as formal and dynamic equivalence. Formal equivalence is basically source oriented; that is, it is designed to reveal as much as possible of the form and the content of the original message. In doing so, a formal equivalent translation attempts to reproduce several formal elements including grammatical units, consistency in word usge, and meanings in terms of the source context. Seen from this formal orientation, one is concerned that the message in the target language should match as closed by as possible to the different elements in the source language. Dynamic equivalence translation is to describe it as the closest natural equivalent to the source language text. This type of definition contains four important terms: the first, equivalent, which points towards the source language message; secondly, natural, which points towards receptor language, the third, closest, which binds the two orientations together on the basis of the highest degree of approximation, and the forth is similarity of response,

10 18 which points towards the similarity of the response of the reader of TL and SL to the text. The concept of translation equivalence as described above by the experts has to be considered by the translators in doing the translation work. In the translation equivalence, since there is no exact translation of the target language text, it brings about a certain problem or consequence in translating that is at first in terms of translation procedures such as borrowing, calque, literal or word per word translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence, adaptation, secondly in terms of translation shifts such as level shift and category shift of structure, class, unit, and intra-system, and thirdly in terms of the principle of translation such as loss, gain, and skewing of information. All of them mentioned are unavoidable in the process of translation Preposition Some authors of grammar or related books have proposed some concepts or definitions of preposition. Some of them are reciprocally interrelated or supporting one another. They are described hereunder. In accordance with Quirk, et.al. (1973), in the most general terms, a preposition expresses a relation between two entities, one being that represented by the prepositional complement. Of the various types of relational meaning, those of PLACE and TIME are the most prominent and easy to identify. Other relationships such as INSTRUMENT and CAUSE may also be recognized,

11 19 although it is difficult to describe prepositional meanings systematically in terms of such labels. In terms of the categories of preposition, Quirk, et.al. (1985) states that most of the English prepositions, such as at, for, on, in, by, etc., are simple prepositions, that is; they consist of one word. Other prepositions such as close to, along with, in accordance with, etc., consisting of more than one word, are called complex prepositions. In addition to those prepositions, there are some words, which behave in many ways like prepositions. This situation gives the category known as marginal prepositions. There are few words behaving like prepositions, although they also have affinities with other classes such as verbs or adjectives, e.g.: Granted his obsequious manner, I still think ambitious enough to do the job.; Two gold hilted swords, each worth 10,000, were sold at Sothby s last Monday. In line with the above, Swan (1980) points out that it is not easy to learn to use prepositions correctly. Most of them have different functions and very often different prepositions have a very similar uses, e.g. at night, in the morning, and on Sunday morning. On the other matters, many nouns, verbs, and adjectives are used with particular prepositions, for instance, smile at, check in, congratulation on, angry at, on a bus, etc. In accordance with Alwi, et.al (1998:288) in Tata Bahasa Baku Bahasa Indonesia, preposition is used to indicate between the front constituent and the back constituent. From the syntactical point of view, the preposition occurs in

12 20 front of adjective, adverb or noun. Then, this group of words constitutes a prepositional phrase. Sneddon (1996) in the glossary of Indonesian reference Grammar states that preposition is a word which links a following noun phrase to the rest of a clause, telling what the relationship of that noun phrase is to the clause. For instance, the preposition di in tells that the following noun kota is the location, in Mereka tinggal di kota They live in the city. He further states that there are many prepositions apart from the locatives. A number occur in clause adjuncts. A few of the more common non-locative prepositions are untuk, bagi, guna,buat for, dengan with, tentang about, concerning, oleh by, sampai until, seperti like, tanpa without. Some prepositions are complex, including a prefix: terhadap towards, beserta together with, sesudah, setelah after. Some also function as verbs, as indicated in parentheses: menurut according to (follow), mengenal about, concerning (affect, concern), lewat via (pass by). A few consist of two words: oleh karena because of, on account of, bersama dengan together with. The forms kepada to and daripada than consist of two words written as one. Ramlan (1980) in Kata Depan Atau Preposisi dalam Bahasa Indonesia states that preposition is a particle that functions as marker in the exocentric phrase. In his research based on the available data, he found there were 115 prepositions in Indonesian.

13 Prepositional Phrase Halliday (1994) states that a phrase in a grammatical category is a reduced strain of clause and group is an enlarged strain of word. Functionally, a phrase plays an important role in a sentence. It constitutes a well complete meaningful text. According to Quirk, et.al. (1972:299), a prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by a prepositional complement, which is characteristically either a noun phrase or a clause (wh-clause or v-ing clause) in a nominal function: PREPOSITION PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT with certainty at the bus-stop from what he said by signing a peace treaty Ramlan (1980) says that prepositional phrase is a phrase preceded by preposition. In a sentence, prepositional phrase tends to occupy the adverbial function, for instance, ledakan bom atom pertama diperingati di Hiroshima, and attribute in a nominal phrase, for instance, Barang-barang dari Jepang mengalir terus ke Indonesia.

14 22 Along with Ramlan, Sneddon (1996) gives a definition that prepositional phrase is a construction consisting of preposition followed by a noun phrase, such as untuk orang itu for those people and dengan teman saya with my friend. 2.3 Theoretical Framework Theoretical framework of this study is based on some theories for the analysis related to the problems, namely: the theory proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (2000) in seven procedures of translation, the theory proposed by Nida (1975) on loss of information, gain of information, and skewing of information, and also the theory by Catford (2000) in shifting. According to Nida (1974), if we talk about equivalence in translation, in a wider sense we do not have exact equivalence of the target language text. It means that there is a certain consequence in translating, which could be in terms of seven procedures of translation, loss, gain, and skewing of information, and shifting Procedures of Translation To get the closest translation equivalence, the theory of Vinay and Darbelnet (in Venuti 2000: 84-93) on a methodology for translation is adopted. He proposes seven procedures or strategies of translation namely: 1. Borrowing Borrowing is usually used in terms of new technical or unknown concepts. In translating a term from the source language into the target language, foreign terms may be used to overcome a gap in terms of meaning. This procedure

15 23 indicates that one language borrows an expression form from another language. It is done due to the fact that the term of the source language is not found in the target language. For example: computer is translated into komputer in Indonesian; Radio into Radio; caravan into karavan 2. Calque Calque is a special kind of borrowing whereby a language borrows an expression form from another, and then the form is translated literary in terms of each of its elements. It is divided into two parts, that is; lexical and structural calque. Lexical calque occurs at the level of syntactic elements, whereas structural calque takes place at the level of construction of language. This procedure indicates that one language borrows an expression form from another language, but each of its elements is then translated literarily, e.g.: Honey moon is translated into Bulan madu in Indonesian. It is referred to as lexical calque; Bali Post into Bali Post is referred to as structural calque. 3. Literal or Word per Word Translation Literal translation is a direct transfer of the source language text grammatically and idiomatically appropriate in the target language text. In this matter, the duty of the translator is to stick firmly to the linguistic servitudes of the target language. This procedure has the meaning that one language is translated directly into a grammatically appropriate target language text, for instance: I am a teacher is translated into Saya adalah seorang guru; Kumpul kebo into Buffalo cohabitation

16 24 4. Transposition Transposition is a process of translation which involves replacing one word class with another without changing the message. There are two types of transposition, namely obligatory transposition and optional transposition. Obligatory is adopted when the target language has no different choices due to the language concepts. For instance: a cup of tea is translated into secangkir teh. Optional transposition is adopted when there is an opportunity to chooce different language forms to make the product of translation souns more stylistic and understandable. This procedure indicates that word class from one language is replced with another without changing the meaning of the message. For example: a joke is translated into bergurau; No smoking into Dilarang merokok; Kawin dengan into Marry; As soon as he gets up into Indonesian Begitu ia bangun 5. Modulation Modulation is a process of translation in which there is a variation of the form of the message, obtained by a change in the point of view. This change can be justified, although literal, even transposed. For example: he is unmarried is translated into ia masih bujang; He was killed in the war into Ia gugur dalam perang 6. Equivalence Equivalence is one of the same situations which can be rendered by two texts using completely different stylistic and structure methods. For example: seputih kapas is translated into as white as snow; cock-a-doodle-doodle into

17 25 kukuruyuk; kill two birds with one stone into sambil menyelam minum air; Kick the bucket into Mati. 7. Adaptation Adaptation is the extreme limit of translation which is used in case the translator has to create a new situation that can be considered equivalence. This procedure means that a process of translating from one language into another to fit the message in the target language E.g.: Take a bath is translated into mandi; Broken heart into Patah hati. Cross-legged into bersila; Dear Sir into dengan hormat; Your sincerely into hormat kami. So in this situation all the translation processes are adapted to identify the equivalent in the target language Translation Principles Besides the theory above, to get the equivalent meaning of the source language, it is worth considering the theory proposed by Nida (1975:27) because two languages (SLT and TLT) have different characteristics or in other word, there is no exact equivalence between the source language and target language. He further argues that there are three conditions applicable as basic principles of translation. Such basic principles are the loss of information, the addition of information, and the skewing of information. Those three principles are very significant to be understood by the translator. In transferring the message from the source language into the target language, the translator should add or lose or skew the information in order to have natural translation. And the naturalness of the translated work can be realized if the target language text is read, the readers feel

18 26 that it is not like translated text. These three translation principles are described hereunder: 1. Loss of Information The translation of items from the source language does not explain the whole information into the target language. In other word, it is not translated or transferred into the target language. For instance: She was ill is translated into Dia sakit (Gender and past tense in SL is not translated. So the translation suffers from loss of information); The sun rises from the east into Matahari terbit dari timur (the and present tense are not translated. So it is considered loss of information); I am broke into Saya kehabisan uang (the colloquial style of SL is not manifest); She is having a bath into Dia sedang mandi (the idea of immersing oneself in the water is missing). 2. Gain of information The translation of items from the source language into the target language is with the addition of extra information. For example: He was going to Jakarta is translated into Dia akan pergi ke Jakarta waktu itu. (It may be necessary that adverb waktu itu should be added); They live together as an unmarried couple into Mereka kumpul kebo (addition of the translator s unfavorable opinion); Painted white, the house looks bigger into Setelah (karena) dicat putih, rumah itu kelihatan lebih besar (Setelah or karena are added in accordance with the context); The students don t like that old teacher into Para siswa membenci si guru tua bangka itu (addition of the insulting tone); Dia

19 27 mahasiswi into She is a university student. In this translation process from Indonesian into English, there is an addition of information in English verse, in which the feminine gender (she), verb to be in present tense (is), and an article (a) are added to make the sense more clearly in the target language. 3. Skewing of Information The translation of items from the source language into the target language is not the exact equivalent. It is skewed or distorted or deviated in the target language. In other word, we can say the message of the source language is wrongly translated, mostly when it is concerned with idiom, proverb or metaphor. For instance: Don t be silly, Darling is translated into Jangan berbuat tolol. In this process of translation, it is said the skewing of information occurs because there is no exact equivalent in the target language. The meaning intended is actually Just for joking ; She made the bed before leaving translated into Dia membuat tempat tidur sebelum pergi is also skewed. The message of the source language is wrongly translated. There is no exact equivalent in the target language. In fact, the intended meaning is She tied up the bed before leaving. Other examples: the translation She climbed up a head of us into Dia menginjak kepala kita is wrong or skewed or distorted. No exact equivalent occurs in the target language. The intended meaning is actually He went up the road before us ; and His father passed away last night is translated into Dia lewat minggu lalu. There is no exact equivalent. The actual intended meaning in the target language is He died last week. In this example, the process of translation

20 28 principle is applied by skewing the information in the source language into the target language Dia lewat minggu lalu Translation Shift Since there are no two languages similar, the shift usually takes place in the process of translation. It can occur both on the surface of word and structure. It is supported by a translation theory of shifting which is proposed by Carford in Venuti (2000: ). He stated that there are two shifts namely level shifts and category shifts. 1. Level Shifts. By a shift of level means that a source language item at one linguistic level has a target language translation equivalent at a different level (Catford, 1965:73). For example: I know it for sure that he has visited his wife last month is translated into Aku tahu dengan pasti bahwa ia telah mengunjungi istrinya bulan lalu. In this example, the grammatical item has + v-ed in the source language is translated into lexicon telah in the target language. 2. Category Shifts Category shifts are departures from formal correspondence in translation (Catford, 1965:76). The category shift can be divided into structure shift, class shift, unit shifts and intra-system shifts.

21 29 A. Structure Shifts. Structure shifts are amongst the most frequent category shifts at all ranks in translation. In grammar, structure shifts can occur at all ranks. Structure is an arrangement of elements. The elements of structure of English are subject, predicator, complement and adjunct (Catford, 1965:6). There are two categories used to determine certain shifts into the structure shifts. First, the source language and the target language should have formal correspondence. If both the source language and the target language have different elements in structure, it means that there is structure shift between the two languages. For Example: SL: Mr. Ali is a teacher. TL: Pak Ali guru. S V C S C The source language structure (SVC) has different elements from the target language sentence structure (SC). This shows us the occurrence of structure-shift in the translation. We could also see from the sequence that occurs in both sentences. The occurrence of different sequence of the elements is also the marker of structure shift. For example: SL: The man is in the boat. TL: Tha an duine anns a'bhata (Catford, 1965:77) S P A P S A

22 30 The example above shows that the sequence of elements in the structure of that language is different from one another. In source languages, the subject is in the beginning of the sentence. However, in the target language, which is Gaelic language, the subject is in the second position after the predicator. It means that the two sentences also show a structure shift. Structure shift can be found at other ranks, for example at group rank. In translation between English and France, for instance, there is often a shift from MH (modifier + head) to (M) HQ (Modifier + (Head + Qualifier)), e.g. A white house (MH) = une maison blanche (MHQ). B. Class Shift. Class shift occurs when the translation equivalent of a source language is a member of a different class from the original item. Because of the logical dependence of class on structure (of the unit at the rank above) it is clear that structure shift usually entails class shift. For example: SL: Siap untuk diminum setiap saat. TL: Ready for instant drinking. The word diminum in the source language sentence functions as a verb. But, in the translation, it is translated into drinking denoting a gerund, which belong to noun class in English. So, the translation equivalent of the verb diminum of the source language is the noun drinking in the target language.

23 31 C. Unit Shifts. Unit shifts have the meaning if changes of rank that is departures from formal correspondence in which the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the source language is a unit at a different rank in the target language. For example:sl: Gadis itu menari dengan luwesnya.tl: The girl is dancing with great fluidity and grace. Luwes in Indonesian is a lexicon (an adjective), its translation equivalent in English is a group of words or a phrase great fluidity and grace. So the rank of luwes is different from that of great fluidity and grace. It means the unit-shift occurs in this translation. D. Intra-System Shifts. Intra-system shifts is the term for those cases where the shift occurs internally, within a system; that is, for those cases where SL and TL posses systems which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system. For example: SL:Two book= TL: Dua buku SL:Some books = TL: beberapa buku From examples above: it can be said that English and Indonesian possess formally corresponding system of number. In each language, the system operates in nominal groups, and is characterized by concord between the exponents of S

24 32 and P in clauses and so on. From the translation above, it happens that the formal correspondence is departed from where the translation equivalent of English plural is Indonesian singular. In Indonesian, plural form should not be followed by plural word too. While in English there is nominal concord or an agreement which rules the nominal group that must be in plural if it is followed by other plural forms. So in this translation the intra-system shift occurs, because English and Indonesian have their respective system and must be analyzed internally.