THE LABOUR MARKET PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN SMALL EUROPEAN UNION MEMBER STATES

Transcription

1 Bank of Valletta Review, No. 46, Autumn 2012 THE LABOUR MARKET PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN SMALL EUROPEAN UNION MEMBER STATES Lily Said Introduction Abstract. This article is intended to provide a comparative analysis of women s participation in the labour market in different European contexts with special reference to five small European States. The paper shows that in the small Member States the participation rate of women is increasing faster than that of the larger Member States, that in the small Member States the participation rate of women is increasing faster than that of the male participation rate and that a higher education level is related to a higher participation rate of women in the small Member States. The paper also discusses some implications derived from the main conclusions. This article is intended to provide a comparative analysis of women s participation in the labour market in different European contexts with special reference to five small European States. Three hypotheses will tested in this paper namely that (a) in the small Member States the participation rate of women is increasing faster than that of the larger Member States (b) in the small Member States the participation rate of women is increasing faster than that of the male participation rate and (3) a higher education level is related to a higher participation rate of women in the small Member States. Lily Said completed the course of MA (Islands and Small States Studies) at the University of Malta in This article gives an overview of the dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the award of the degree MA (Islands and Small States Studies) in September,

2 Lily Said The main indicators are: the male and female activity rates (15 to 64 years) in the SMS group; the female activity rate (15 to 64 years) of the SMS group compared with that of the LMS group; and the percentage of females between 15 to 64 years, with the highest level of education attained juxtaposed against the activity rate. The paper is organised as follows. The next section gives an overview of activity rates in the EU. The third section explains the methodology to be used for the analysis. The fourth, fifth and sixth sections present a discussion on each of the three hypothesis listed above. The seventh section concludes the paper with some implications. Activity Rates in the EU Activity rates (also called labour force participation rates) refer to those individuals who are economically active as a proportion of the working age population. This number includes those who are employed and those who are unemployed but actively seek work. Women constitute half of any country s human resources and affect the country s productive effort. Therefore, their participation in the labour market has obvious implications for the economic welfare and growth of a state. In fact, the increase in the female labour force may significantly assist in sustaining the economic growth of a country. The share of women s participation in the labour market is generally regarded as a major indicator of the state of development towards equality in gender relations (Pfau-Effinger, 2004). Equal opportunities can contribute towards a productive economy. It allows for human potential to be developed and deployed more effectively, thereby allowing for the possibility of more productive lives for all citizens (Rubery et al., 2003: 241). The objective of the European employment strategy is to move towards an active and highly productive economy. The EU employment strategy incorporated in the Lisbon Summit 2000 and the Europe 2020 Targets is to increase the overall employment rates in EU countries to compensate for the predicted decline in employment rates due 66

3 The Labour Market Participation of Women in Small EU Member States to the ageing population. There is a strong link between female employment rate and the overall increase in employment rate. In fact, it is widely recognised that an increase in the female labour force participation is the key to higher overall employment rates in the EU (European Commission, 2011b). Significant differences exist in the participation of women in the labour market throughout the EU Member States. In 2011, countries like Denmark (76.1 per cent), the Netherlands (73.1 per cent), and Sweden (77.7 per cent), classified in this study among the LMS, had the highest female participation rates among these states. On the other hand, among the small states, Estonia had the highest female participation rate at 71.5 per cent that compares well with that of the LMS. Malta had the lowest female participation rate among the EU Member States at 44.1 per cent (Eurostat, 2012). The participation of women in the European Union labour market needs to be studied for two main reasons. The first reason is that women constitute about half of the country s human endowment and this has obvious implications for the economic and social development of a state. A higher participation rate contributes towards a productive economy which can also imply positive quality of life effects, as it expands personal choice, redistributes resources and reduces poverty among women and children. The second reason is that due to on-going demographic changes, Europe s workforce is shrinking. The EU employment strategy to help improve the sustainability of the present-day welfare state is to increase the overall employment rate across Member States. There is a strong link between female employment and the increase in the overall employment rate. Increasing the participation of women in the labour market is seen as one of the major sources of boosting employment rates to meet the Europe 2020 headline target for employment (European Commission, 2011b). Methodology The study draws on primary data analysis as well as on some secondary sources. Data for this research were sourced from Eurostat, the EU Agency 67

4 Lily Said that provides demographic and performance indicator data about the European Member States. 1 Indicators used in this study are mainly derived from the European Labour Force Survey (EU LFS). The Eurostat Statistics data for Cyprus only refer to the territory under the control of the Government of the Republic of Cyprus. Indicators for the education level of SMS and LMS were sourced from the Education and Training database. For the purpose of this research, the 27 EU Member States were divided into two groups by using the population size. One group labelled small Member States (SMS) is composed of five States with a population of about 1 million or less these are Estonia, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Malta, and Slovenia. A second group labelled larger Member States (LMS) includes the remaining 22 larger EU Member States. Data series included in this comparative study cover from 2004 to The cut-off point to compare the female participation rate with the combination of variables is driven by historical circumstances since Estonia, Cyprus, Malta and Slovenia joined the EU in For the first hypothesis, the 27 EU Member States were divided into two groups five SMS group and 22 LMS group as explained earlier on. In the second hypothesis, data refer to the five SMS as a group. For the third hypothesis the result is related to the five SMS. Female Activity Rates in the SMS compared with those in LMS The progress in the participation of women in the labour market of the SMS is also evident when compared with the situation of women in the labour market of the LMS. From 2004 to 2011, the participation rate of women in the SMS group (SMS) was always higher than that of the LMS group (LMS). Table 1 and Figure 1 show the participation rate of women of the SMS compared with that of the LMS from 2004 to The gap between the SMS and the LMS was very small in 2004, then grew wider over 2006 and became rather constant between 2007 and The gap between the two groups seems to be decreasing in In the SMS there

5 The Labour Market Participation of Women in Small EU Member States was an increase in the female participation rate almost every year, except in 2011, whereas, in the LMS an increase in the participation rate was noted in each year. Table 1 Female Activity Rates (%) in SMS and LMS SMS LMS Gap Source: Eurostat Figure 1 Female Activity Rates (%) in SMS and LMS The difference between the activity rates of the SMS and the LMS was insignificant in 2004 and then it started to increase (Table 1). SMS generally benefitted from EU membership in terms of real GDP growth rates (Xuereb, 2009). This may be due to the enhanced access to the EU markets that resulted in higher economic activity that contributed towards more job 69

6 Lily Said opportunities for women. The Lisbon European Council set a target for the female employment rate of 60 per cent by There were fourteen Member States which exceeded this threshold in 2009, three of which were SMS, namely Estonia, Cyprus and Slovenia (Eurostat yearbook, 2011d). All the SMS experienced an increase in the overall female employment rate in 2009 compared with The overall female employment rate of Luxembourg was close to the Lisbon target at 57 per cent, whereas the female employment rate of Malta stood at 37.6 per cent in 2009 (Eurostat, 2012). Table 2 and Figure 2 show the annual change in the participation rate of women in the SMS compared with that of the LMS. During 2004 to 2009, the growth in the participation rate of the SMS was consistently higher than that of the LMS until 2010 and 2011, where the growth rate of the SMS became lower than that of the LMS. Therefore, one cannot conclude that the participation rate of women in the SMS is increasing faster than that of the LMS. Table 2 and Figure 2 also indicate that the most significant growth in the participation of women in the SMS was in 2004 at 2.27 percentage points over the previous year. Then, the growth rate started decelerating until it registered a negative value of percentage points in The lowest registered growth in the participation rate of women in the LMS was in 2007 at 0.55 percentage points and 2010 at 0.51 percentage points. A possible explanation to these results could be that the labour markets in the LMS are more stable than those of the SMS. In other words, LMS are less prone to strong fluctuations (whether positive or negative) in the external environment. This might simply be due to the sheer size of the country. In line with Briguglio (2011), economies of small states are extremely vulnerable to swings in the global economy due to the high dependence on exports and imports, and limitations of diversification possibilities. For example, in the case of Cyprus and Malta, if they experience a dramatic decline in tourism which is one of their main sectors, it will definitely have a significant effect on the economy and the labour market. 70

7 The Labour Market Participation of Women in Small EU Member States Table 2 Change in the Female Activity Rates (Percentage Points) SMS LMS Figure 2 Change in the Female Activity Rates (Percentage Points) Differences in Gender Activity Rates in the SMS There was a positive development in the active population in the EU-27 largely due to the increased participation of women in the labour market. In spite of the economic crisis, the activity rate of women maintained the upward trend seen in previous years (De La Fuente, 2010). As a result inactivity rates decreases. Between 2004 and 2011, the share of women outside the labour market across the EU diminished from 38.5 per cent to 35.1 per cent, while the share of men outside the labour force decreased slightly from 23.1 per cent in 2004 to 22.4 per cent in

8 Lily Said (Eurostat, 2012). However, women are more likely than men to be outside the labour force in all Member States (European Commission, 2012). According to EU Labour Force Survey, in 2011, the main reason for the inactivity of women between 25 and 54 years is family responsibilities 2. In the EU, the prime working age is between 25 and 54 years. This period coincides with the time for starting families and raising children. It is in this age group that the gender differences in the inactivity rate are more evident. In 2011, 8.4 per cent of men in this age group were outside the labour force in the EU-27 compared to 21.6 per cent of women. In 2011, the inactivity rate of women aged 25 to 54 ranged from 12 per cent in Slovenia and 46.3 per cent in Malta (European Commission, 2012). Younger women today have higher levels of education than their older counterparts and are more likely to see the labour market as a permanent aspect of their future lives, even with the presence of children. Policies to promote a two-earner/two-carer society and desegregating jobs and pay structures can lead to the further development of female employment towards a productive society (Rubery et al., 2003). The Europe 2020 Strategy does not distinguish between the sexes as regards its employment rate target (of 75 per cent by 2020) among those aged from 20 to 64 years. The promotion of flexible working conditions such as part-time work or work from home is believed to stimulate labour participation. Other initiatives that may encourage more people to enter the labour market include improvements in the availability of childcare centres, providing more opportunities for lifelong learning, or facilitating job mobility (European Commission, 2011e). 2 In the EU LFS (2011) family responsibilities were listed as the main reason for the inactivity of women (aged 25 to 54). The main reason may or may not be the only reason. 72

9 The Labour Market Participation of Women in Small EU Member States Gender differences in the SMS Table 3 and Figure 3 show the male and female activity rates for the period 2004 to 2011 in the SMS as a group. Data show that the male participation rate remained consistently higher than the female participation rate. Table 3 SMS Male and Female Activity Rates (%) Male Activity Rate Female Activity Rate Gap Source: Eurostat Figure 3 SMS Male and Female Activity Rates (%) However, the gender gap in activity rates has declined, with the smallest differences registered between 2009 and 2011, as shown in the figure below. The difference in gender activity stood at 15.1 percentage points in 2004 and 11.3 percentage points in This confirms the upward trend in the participation of women in the labour force across the SMS coupled with a levelling or decline in the male participation rate. 73

10 Lily Said Table 4 and Figure 4 indicate the annual change in the male and female activity rates for the period 2004 to Data show that the participation of women in the SMS has increased faster than the male participation, with the exception of The highest annual growth over the previous year in the participation rate of women in the SMS was in 2004, standing at 2.27 percentage points. On the other hand, the female participation rate registered a negative value of percentage point in Since 2009 both male and female experienced a decline in the participation growth rates. Male Activity Rate Female Activity Rate Table 4 Change in the Gender Activity Rates (%) in the SMS Figure 4 Change in the Gender Activity Rates (%) in the SMS The decline in the male and female participation growth may be due to the global economic crisis, between 2008 and 2009, that has impacted people 74

11 The Labour Market Participation of Women in Small EU Member States differently depending on their sex and age. Women were less affected than men, given that the crisis hit first and foremost the construction, financial services and automotive sectors where male employment is higher than female employment (DG Economic and Financial Affairs, 2009). Between 2004 and 2007, across the EU, the unemployment gender gap was stable at around 1.4 percentage points, with a higher rate for women. However, since 2008, the rates have converged. In 2011, the male unemployment rate has moved to only 0.2 percentage points below the female rate (Eurostat, 2012). Female Participation and Educational Attainment in SMS Education appears to be a major determining factor on the participation of women in the labour market. A positive relationship emerges between the level of education qualification and labour market participation of women in the EU: the higher the educational attainment, the higher the female participation rate. The reasons for this are various and include that women who invest in their education decide to work in order to recover the cost of that investment in human capital. Moreover, women who have acquired a high level of education are more inclined than others to join the labour market because their higher earning potential increases the opportunity cost of not working (foregone earnings). In addition, a high level of education increases the chances of employability and success especially in today s highly competitive labour market and in the context of an economic downturn. Upper secondary attainment is an important indicator for measuring progress in the area of education in a country. This was related to the EU benchmark of achieving by 2010 a rate of 85 per cent of young people (aged 20-24) having completed at least upper secondary education (Commission of the European Communities, 2010/2011). Luxembourg has the highest percentage of female of working age with upper secondary level of education among the SMS followed by Estonia, both of which have the highest female participation rates. 75

12 Lily Said When exploring the relationship between education and the participation rate one can conclude that persons attaining a low educational level are more likely to be inactive. This association applies irrespective of sex and age across Member States. In 2011, in the EU-27, the inactivity rate of persons in the age group 25 to 64 who had attained a lower secondary level of education was 37.3 per cent, as compared to 20.8 per cent for persons with an upper secondary level and 11.8 per cent for persons with a tertiary level (European Commission, 2012). Evidence on the relation between education and labour market outcomes has increased policy awareness to better use the synergies between education and employment to foster more productivity in the labour market. The Europe 2020 Targets include that the share of year olds with tertiary education qualifications should be at least 40 per cent, and that the share of early school leavers should be less than 10 per cent (Medeiros and Minty, 2012). In 2009, eleven EU countries had already exceeded the 2020 target of 40 per cent (30-34 year olds) including Luxembourg and Cyprus with a high tertiary attainment of 46.6 per cent and 44.7 per cent respectively. The rate of tertiary attainment for Estonia stood at 35.9, Slovenia at 31.6, and Malta at 21.1 per cent (Commission of the European Communities, 2010/2011). There is evidence that as the educational qualification levels of women increase, female employment rates also increase. The female employment rate from 15 to 64 years, of those who had completed a tertiary education was 78.7 per cent across the EU-27 in 2011, much higher than the rate of 36.9 per cent for those who had attained a lower secondary level of education. The EU-27 female employment rate with an upper secondary level of education was 62.3 per cent (Eurostat, 2012). With regards to the SMS average in 2011, the female employment rate from 15 to 64 years, of those who had completed a tertiary education was per cent compared with per cent for those who had attained a lower secondary level of education only. The female employment rate with an upper secondary level of education was 60.6 per cent (Eurostat, 2012). 76

13 The Labour Market Participation of Women in Small EU Member States Activity rates in the individual SMS The relationship between education and the participation rate of women is also evident among the small Member State that have a high number of females of working age with a higher level of educational attainment. 3 Table 5 and Figure 5 present data on the female activity rates in each of the SMS. Table 5 Female Activity Rates in each of the SMS Cyprus Estonia Luxembourg Malta Slovenia It can be seen that there was a tendency for all the SMS to experience an increase in their participation rates. The fast increase was registered by Malta, which however started from a very low rate. If Malta is excluded, the average participation rate of the other four SMS in 2011 was about 66% with Malta lagging behind at 44%. Levels of education and activity rates When looking at the percentages of females from 15 to 64 with tertiary level of education (refer to the following Tables and Figures) in each SMS, one can observe that there has been an increase in percentages of females with high level of education in all the small states. Progress in the number of 3 The working age is conventionally set at 15 to 64 years of age. Above this age more than 95 per cent of persons are economically inactive, hence supporting this convention (Eurostat, 2011). 77

14 Lily Said Figure 5 Female Activity Rates in each of the SMS females with tertiary education during the period 2004 to 2011 was the strongest in Luxembourg and Cyprus (almost 12 percentage points increase), Slovenia (8.1 percentage points increase), Estonia (7.4 percentage points increase), and Malta (4.6 percentage points increase). This means that more women are attaining tertiary levels of education in the SMS. Levels of education and activity rates When looking at the percentages of females from 15 to 64 with tertiary level of education (refer to the following Tables and Figures) in each SMS, one can observe that there has been an increase in percentages of females with high level of education in all the small states. Progress in the number of females with tertiary education during the period 2004 to 2011 was the strongest in Luxembourg and Cyprus (almost 12 percentage points increase), Slovenia (8.1 percentage points increase), Estonia (7.4 percentage points increase), and Malta (4.6 percentage points increase). This means that more women are attaining tertiary levels of education in the SMS. A correlation analysis between the levels of tertiary education and participation rates using the panel data of small states covering 2004 to 78

15 The Labour Market Participation of Women in Small EU Member States 2011 yielded a very high correlation between the two variables, confirming this strong link between the two variables. Estonia Table 6 and Figure 6 indicate the percentage of women in Estonia (15 to 64 years) with the highest level of educational attainment from 2004 to In 2011, there were 38.4 per cent of females from 15 to 64 years who had a tertiary level of education. On the other hand, 15.1 per cent of females 15 to 64 years only attained a lower secondary level of education. The high level of education in Estonian women appears to relate to the high female participation rate in the labour force. In 2011, the participation rate in Estonia stood at 71.5 per cent, the highest among the SMS. Tertiary Level Upper Secondary Level Lower Secondary Level Female Activity Rate Table 6 Estonia: Highest Education Level of Females (%) aged Source: Eurostat 79

16 Lily Said Figure 6 Estonia: Highest Education Level of Females (%) aged Cyprus Table 7 and Figure 7 show the percentage of women in Cyprus (15 to 64 years) with the highest level of educational attainment from 2004 to In 2011, there were 36.6 per cent of females aged 15 to 64 years, who attained a tertiary level of education, whereas 28 per cent reached only a lower secondary level of education. As in the case of Estonia, the high percentage of women with a high level of education can be associated with the high female participation in Cyprus. In 2011, the female activity rate stood at 66.8 per cent. 80

17 The Labour Market Participation of Women in Small EU Member States Table 7 Cyprus: Highest Education Level of Females (%) aged Tertiary Level Upper Secondary Level Lower Secondary Level Female Activity Rate Source: Eurostat Figure 7 Cyprus: Highest Education Level of Females (%) aged Luxembourg Table 8 and Figure 8 show the percentage of women in Luxembourg (15 to 64 years) with the highest level of educational attainment from 2004 to 81

18 Lily Said In 2011, there were 29.9 per cent of females from 15 to 64 years who had a tertiary level of education as well as another 30.4 per cent who only reached a lower secondary level of education. In 2011, the female activity rate in Luxembourg stood at 60.7 per cent, which is less than that of Estonia, Cyprus and Slovenia Table 8 Luxembourg: Highest Education Level of Females (%) aged Tertiary Level Upper Secondary Level Lower Secondary Level Female Activity Rate Source: Eurostat Figure 8 Luxembourg: Highest Education Level of Females (%) aged

19 The Labour Market Participation of Women in Small EU Member States Malta Table 9 and Figure 9 indicate the percentage of females (15 to 64 years) with the highest level of educational attainment in Malta from 2004 to The figure shows that in 2011 there were 68.6 per cent of women from 15 to 64 years who only achieved lower secondary level of education. Besides, in 2011 there were only 14.1 per cent of women between 15 to 64 years who attained a tertiary level of education. This in part may explain the low participation rate of Maltese women in the labour market. In 2011, the female activity rate was only 44.1 per cent which is the lowest among the SMS. Table 9 Malta: Highest Education Level of Females (%) aged Tertiary Level Upper Secondary Level Lower Secondary Level Female Activity Rate Slovenia Source: Eurostat Table 10 and Figure 10 show the percentage of women in Slovenia (15 to 64 years) with the highest level of educational attainment from 2004 to In 2011, there were 26.1 per cent of females between 15 and 64 years old who had a tertiary level of education, whereas 20.9 per cent of female only had a lower secondary level of education. The percentage of females, 15 to 64 years old with an upper secondary level of education stood at 53 per cent. The female activity rate stood at 66.5 per cent in 2011 which is the second highest among the SMS. 83

20 Lily Said Figure 9 Malta: Highest Education Level of Females (%) aged Table 10 Slovenia: Highest Education Level of Females (%) aged Tertiary Level Upper Secondary Level Lower Secondary Level Female Activity Rate Source: Eurostat 84

21 The Labour Market Participation of Women in Small EU Member States Figure 10 Slovenia: Highest Education Level of Females (%) aged Conclusion From the data analysis one can conclude that in the small Member States the participation rate of women is increasing faster than that of the larger Member States and that in the small Member States the participation rate of women is increasing faster than that of the male participation rate. It was also shown that is a higher activity rate of women is related to a higher education level in the small Member States. The gender gap in the activity rates of the five SMS indicates that there is still an imbalance between men and women in the sharing of domestic and family responsibilities, with the result that women more often than men 85

22 Lily Said opt for part-time work or even give up work altogether. The promotion of work-life balance and family-friendly measures were highlighted in the NRPs (2011/2012) of the five SMS as part of the employment strategy towards a higher participation of women in the labour market. An equal distribution of childcare and other caring responsibilities could enable equal opportunities in employment for men and women. The utilising of support measures by both men and women like maternity, paternity, parental and/or other family related leave is needed to ensure that the stereotypical gender roles are not reinforced. Educational programmes and information campaigns focused on facilitating attitudinal change could enable a more equal share of parenting and other obligations that are traditionally associated with women. In this context, promoting and enabling an active role for fathers in childcare is essential. Some Member States are taking legislative measures to facilitate the equal distribution of paid and unpaid work. For example, in Sweden, equality bonuses are paid to encourage mother and father to share their parental leave more equally (European Commission, 2011f). According to the EU LFS in 2011, the main reason for female inactivity is family responsibilities. Despite government policies encouraged by the European Union, it is still challenging for women to reconcile work, family and private life. According to a report on gender equality by the European Commission (2011f), childcare facilities are still in short supply in most Member States. The provision of high-quality, affordable and accessible childcare is a vital step in offering parents, and especially women, a genuine choice to work. Moreover, women in particular take care of both children and older relatives. This further indicates the need for more care services for dependent persons. Other deficits will require the support of the social partners to include employee-friendly flexible forms of employment and working time arrangements such as specific leave, weekend shifts, and telecommuting. Furthermore, results illustrates that the participation of women in the SMS is not increasing faster than that of the LMS, due to the decline in growth rates in the last couple of years. This indicates that SMS are more economically vulnerable to international crises than other group of 86

23 The Labour Market Participation of Women in Small EU Member States countries, which could significantly impact labour market conditions. Adequate on-going training and programmes provided by employers towards their employees could assists employment conditions in terms of economic downturns. Given the large number of women of working age with low level of education, especially in Malta, it implies the need for stronger policy measures to address early school leaving in order to boost school completion. Additionally, a higher level of education increases women s employability and labour success. Therefore, measures to increase the share of young females holding tertiary education qualifications could positively affect the female labour force of a country. References BRIGUGLIO, L. (2011). Economic Vulnerability and Resilience with Reference to Malta. Islands and Small States Instute, University of Malta. COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES (2010/2011). Progress Towards the Common European Objectives in Education and Training. Available at ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learningpolicy/doc/.../report_en.pdf (accessed on 28 June 2012). DE LA FUENTE, A. (2010) Fewer People Outside the Labour Force in 2009 Increased Female Participation in the Labour Market.. Available at: epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ity...sf.../ks-sf en.pdf (accessed on 6 May 2012). DIRECTORATE GENERAL ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL AFFAIRS (2009) Economic Crisis in Europe: Causes, Consequences and Responses. Available at: ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/.../publication15887_en.pdf (accessed on 26 June 2012). EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2012a) Europe 2020: Female Labour Market Participation. Available at en.htm (accessed on 2 December EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2009). The provision of Childcare Services. Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities Available at: 87

24 Lily Said ec.europa.eu/social/blobservlet?docid=2803&langid=en (accessed on 10 July). EUROPEAN COMMISSION, Eurostat Database. Available at: database EUROPEAN COMMISSION, Eurostat (2011b) Employment Statistices. Available at: http//epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics explained/index. php/employment statistics (accessed on 29 June 2012). EUROPEAN COMMISSION (2011c) Report on the Progress on Equality between Women and Men in Available at: register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/11/st06/st06571.en11.pdf (accessed on 1 July 2012). EUROPEAN COMMISSION, Eurostat (2011d) Europe in Figures: Eurostat Yearbook Available at: publication?. product code=ks-cd (accessed on 14 June 2012). EUROPEAN COMMISSION, Eurostat (2012) Labour Market Participation by Sex and Age. Available at: market participation by sex and age (accessed on 25 June 2012). GOVERNMENT OFFICE (2011) National Reform Programme Estonia Available at: estonia en.pdf (accessed on 3 May 2012). GOVERNMENT OFFICE (2012) National Reform Programme Estonia Available at: estonia en.pdf (accessed on 3 May 2012). MEDEIROS, J., and MINTY, P. (2012) Analytical Support in the Setting of EU Employment Rate Targets for Available at: ec.europa.eu/social/blobservlet?docid=7758&langid=en (accessed on 1 May 2012). MINISTRY OF FINANCE (2012) Slovenia National Reform Programme Available at: (accessed on 5 May 2012). MINISTRY OF FINANCE, THE ECONOMY AND INVESTMENT (2011) Malta s National Reform Programme under the Europe 2020 Strategy. 88

25 The Labour Market Participation of Women in Small EU Member States Available at ec.eruopa.eu/europe2020/pdf/nrp/nrp_malta_en.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2012). MINISTRY OF FINANCE, THE ECONOMY AND INVESTMENT (2012) Malta s National Reform Programme under the Europe 2020 Strategy. Available at: ec.eruopa.eu/europe2020/pdf/nd/nrp2012_malta_en.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2012). MINISTRY OF FINANCE, THE ECONOMY AND INVESTMENT (2011) National Reform Programme for the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Available at: ec.eruopa.eu/europe2020/pdf/nrp/nrp_luxembourg_en.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2012). MINISTRY OF FINANCE, THE ECONOMY AND INVESTMENT (2012) National Reform Programme for the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Available at: ec.eruopa.eu/europe2020/pdf/nd/nrp2012_luxembourg_en.pdf (accessed on 4 May 2012). PFAU-EFFINGER, B. (2004) Development of Culture, Welfare States and Women s Employment in Europe. UK: Ashgate Publishing. PLANNING BUREAU (2011) Cyprus National Reform Programme Available at: (accessed on 4 May 2012). PLANNING BUREAU (2012) Cyprus National Reform Programme Available at: (accessed on 4 May 2012). RUBERY, J., HUMPHRIES, J., FAGAN, C., GRIMSHAW, D., and SMITH, M. (2003). Equal Opportunities as a Productive Factor. In Burchell, G., Deakin, S., Michie, J., Rubery, J. (ed) Systems of Production Markets, Organisations and Performance, London: Routledge: XUEREB, V. (2009) Economic Performance of Small States in the European Economic Area Compared to Larger Countries. University of Malta. 89