Chapter 6: Issues and debates

Transcription

1 Chapter 6: Issues and debates Page Outline two contributions to society from the Social Approach. (6 marks) One contribution from the social approach is to show ways to reduce prejudice. Social Identity Theory suggests that prejudice is caused by people seeing groups as either the in group that they belong to or as an out group that they do not belong to. The first stage is to categorise people into groups in this way. Then someone will identify with their in group, such as wearing a uniform and taking on in group attitudes. In order to raise selfesteem the in group is seen as good and right, and any out group members are seen in a hostile way. This hostility is prejudice. One way of reducing prejudice is to break down group barriers so that people see out groups in a less hostile way in a way they adopt the out group members into a wider in group. Another way that the social approach contributes to society is in understanding obedience. Milgram showed that people obey orders even when the orders go against their moral code and obeying distresses them. This can help to explain situations such as in Abu Ghraib when US soldiers behaved in a brutal way towards Iraqi prisoners apparently because they were told to. They were, according to Milgram s Agency theory, in an agentic state and were obedient to an authority figure. They did not act autonomously. Society benefits from understanding the power of an authority figure both when attributing blame (someone might not be as blameworthy if they are acting under orders) and when understanding apparently brutal behaviour (for example, it is suggested that everyone would behave in that way). 4/6 There is only one mark for the explanation of how to reduce prejudice because the answer focuses on explaining prejudice and only at the end suggests a way to reduce it (breaking down barriers). The explanation of understanding obedience gets the three marks that are likely to be allocated to this part of the answer. There is a clear link to a contribution when saying that understanding obedience helps to explain apparently brutal behaviour. Another mark is likely for the expansion to link to agency theory. A final mark is likely for the summary showing that attributing blame is an important part of society and is helped by understanding obedience. There are other ways of answering this question including other contributions and/or other ways to reduce prejudice and to explain obedience. Avoid long descriptions of the theory/studies unless clearly asked to outline or describe them. Often questions about key issues and contributions do not involve a lot of description of the psychology itself, but need descriptions of how the psychology is used. The answer to this question should help to illustrate this point. Remember to signpost the different parts of your answer by using separate paragraphs, to make it clear to the examiner.

2 2. With reference to one contribution to society from the Social Approach and one from the Cognitive Approach evaluate those contributions. (6 marks) Understanding obedience is useful to society and there is a great deal of experimental evidence to support the idea of agency theory that people act as agents to those in authority and so obey even against their moral code. Milgram carried out many laboratory experiments, Meeus and Raaijmakers in Holland verified Milgram s findings and also used a lab study, these replications suggest that the findings are reliable. Hofling et al (1966) carried out a field study and also found that people (nurses) obey authority figures (doctors). Field studies are more valid because they tend to be in the participants natural setting. So findings about obedience and agency theory tend to be both reliable and valid. However, generalising might be difficult over time as cultural attitudes, including when to obey, may change. Milgram and Hofling et al worked in the 1960s and 1970s. Though Meeus and Raaijmakers carried out their study later. A contribution from the cognitive approach is the development of cognitive therapies such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). CBT has been found to be effective to such an extent that it is now funded by the government and is offered free to anyone who needs it though the Improving Access to Psychological Therapies government initiative. CBT has also been found to be effective for Schizophrenia (Bradshaw, 1998). However, the client has to focus on changing their thinking to less negative thinking patterns doing homework so the therapy might only be as effective as the willingness and ability of a client in a cognitive sense. 5/6 This answer is thorough and evaluates, which is required. Little time is spent on description of the contributions, which is right for this particular question. With regard to the social contribution marks are gained for giving the advantages of experimental (empirical) evidence and to naming the evidence to show that there is reliability. And marks are then gained for showing that field studies have backed up laboratory experimental evidence so there is some validity as well. The final comment about generalisability is also creditworthy. This answer usefully uses terminology when making clear points. Three marks are likely. Then for the contribution of CBT there is evaluation giving named evidence about someone with schizophrenia benefiting from CBT but Bradshaw s study should have been explained more. There is a clear explanation of how CBT is used in society by the government. A final point is made about CBT needing some cognitive ability, and the implication is that this might limit its effectiveness. Overall three points made here, but possibly only two marks would be awarded, so this answer is likely to get 5 of the 6 marks. Explain every point you make as is done here. Although the three points made with regard to understanding obedience are that findings are reliable and valid though perhaps not generalisable, these points have been sufficiently explained and justified or marks may not have been awarded. Also notice that there is a lot of might not be and tend to be. It is a good idea not to make categorical claims about research methods. For example, not all field experiments are valid.

3 3. Using one contribution to society from the Social Approach and one from the Cognitive Approach in each case explain why they are said to be from that approach. (6 marks) Ideas of how to reduce prejudice come from the social approach in psychology. The social approach focuses on individual and group behaviour in relation to interactions with others. Prejudice refers to hostile attitudes towards other people often stemming from stereotyping or judging someone because of a group they belong to. For example, with regard to social identity theory self-esteem of someone is raised when they see their own in group as valuable and good, and it is also raised when they see those in out groups in a hostile way. This is all about how others are perceived and about group behaviour, so is part of the social approach. The use of CBT involved focus on thinking. The idea is that feelings and emotions, which are often characterised as distress, anxiety, depression and low self esteem, come from negative automatic thoughts and the main focus is on rebalancing such thoughts. As the cognitive approach is about how we process information then clearly CBT has a strong cognitive element. 5/6 Examples showing how the focus of reducing prejudice is on interactions with others are enough to be likely to get all three marks. The examples are clear and detailed and the link back to the approach is also very clear. However, perhaps the links from CBT to the cognitive approach might get just two marks. In a point based marking scheme each marking point is likely to get one mark. There are really only two main marking points with regard to the cognitive approach that CBT is about thinking and processing information as is the approach, and that examples of that are what CBT considers the importance of rebalancing negative automatic thoughts. This is close to three marks though. Just perhaps say a little more, for example, about how thoughts can reveal core beliefs. Notice that, in many of these questions, it is assumed that when a question is worth 6 marks and it is in two parts there are 3 marks for each part of the question. This is usually the case, but not always. It is possible to allow 4 marks for one part of the question and 2 for the other part, meaning you can either get 3+3 or 4+2 and therefore have two chances of getting full marks. For that reason, when answering questions with two parts, a good strategy is to assume that the marks are equally split between the two parts, as has been done here.

4 Page Outline two contributions from the Biological Approach. (6 marks) One contribution from the Biological Approach is the development and use of PET scanning. PET scanning involves using a radioactive tracer that is taken into the body using glucose, for example. Technology has been developed such that the tracer can be tracked in the brain and can highlight which part of the brain is active in the sense of using oxygen - when particular tasks or situations occur. A computer can be set up to generate pictures of the brain in slices and colours to show the level of the tracer in the brain at one time. Where there are hot spots in the picture that is where there is activity and where positrons are being emitted. The more glucose or oxygen that is used up the more the tracer decays and emits more positrons in doing so. It is useful to use such scanning techniques as PET scans because a live brain can be studied in this way as can live activity. It is hard if not impossible to study such activity in any other way. Another contribution is understanding gender or rather sex assignment and gender development. Through understanding, for example, that boys have an XY pattern of chromosomes and girls have XX it is possible to start to understand how different hormones are released and how hormones affect physical development (e.g. genitals), which then affects sex assignment. In our society sex assignment is very important as many judgments about people are made on the basis of their gender. There is also an understanding then of those with differences such as and XXY pattern or a single X pattern. 5/6 Although the contribution of PET scanning is outlined as an explanation of the technique and only explained as a contribution at the end of the section, this is likely to gain all three marks. The scanning technique in this case is the contribution and so explaining it in detail to show what it can help to uncover is appropriate. The second contribution is given in less detail and might get two of the three marks, although it is made relevant. Perhaps the answer could explain more about why judgments are made about sex assignment and the Money study could help to show what happens when sex assignment is incorrectly made and to show evidence for the biological explanation of gender. Note how much of the material on contributions can come from your AS studies. You can, however, of course use contributions from the A2 applications (CBT is an example of that).

5 2. Explain how the Psychodynamic Approach has helped society in its functioning. (3 marks) The Psychodynamic Approach has helped society mainly by providing a therapy for mental health disorders that are neuroses. Psychoanalysis has been shown to be successful by Bachrach et al, who carried out a meta-analysis, though they suggested that not everyone would benefit. Those who were more likely to understand analysis and who were able to focus on their issues were more likely to benefit. Society is helped when mental disorders are reduced. 2/3 This answer focuses on how society is helped by psychoanalysis so it focuses on the question. Although the comment about its success might seem like evaluation as it is giving evidence, there is a way in which a contribution is evaluation in that it looks at how a theory is applied to society, so in this answer the evidence is part of explaining the contribution and is creditable. This answer is likely to get two of the three marks though. More about psychoanalysis could be explained to show how it helps society, such as what neuroses are and what type of mental health disorder might be helped. Notice that giving criticism, such as that the therapy is expensive and time consuming, would not gain marks as the question is about how society is helped to function. Only points focusing explicitly on the question get marks. Page What does it mean to ask about a contribution to society? (3 marks) A contribution means adding something useful in this case to society. This can be in terms of helping society to control members of society or in terms of helping individuals within a society. If someone is asking about a contribution to society they want to know in what way society benefits. The benefit can be positive or it can be in the form of preventing something negative. Examples of contributions include helping to see how to reduce prejudice in society, because prejudice can cause problems which have to be policed and controlled and also prejudice can make a society s members unhappy, which is not what a society is likely to aim for. 3/3 This answer is likely to gain three marks as the definition of a contribution to society is clear, then elaborated upon and finally some examples are given and explained to help to illustrate what contribution to society means.

6 You might not have expected a question on what contribution means as, in a way, it is not about psychology as such. However, expect to be asked to define terms in the specification: contribution to society is a large section in Issues and Debates so it is reasonable to test to see if you have understood what it means. Prepare for such questions by making sure you can define all the terms. Usually definition questions have 2 marks so if there are 3 marks then an example can be useful, as is done here. 2. Evaluate two contributions to society that have come from applications of psychology. (6 marks) Two contributions to society that have come from applications are the focus on what is good about daycare and, correspondingly what might be bad (which comes from child psychology) and ideas about how to treat substance misuse (which comes from health psychology). Ideas about daycare tend to come from studies that use observations of young children and interviews with parents. Naturalistic observations gather valid data because they take place in the natural setting, in this case for the infant, as they are often watched in their own home or daycare setting. Infants and children are also often watched during free play, so that their behaviour is more natural. They tend to involve gathering quantitative data by means of tallying and use more than one observer so that inter rater reliability can be checked. For example, Melhuish et al (1990) only used data gathered from reliable observers. Qualitative data are often gathered as well. Interviews with parents can gather in depth data, which is also likely to be valid more so that using questionnaires where the opportunity to elaborate upon answers is not often given. With regard to the treatment of substance abuse, again much of the data is gathered by means of questionnaires and interviewing so again there is likely to be validity in the findings, given that both qualitative and quantitative data are likely. In the case of looking at the effectiveness of treatments, however, biological measures are also possible such as testing to see if traces of the drug are present in the body. This gives more scientific measures than in surveying, which means the data tend to be objective and there is no interpretation with regard to the findings. Treatment often focuses on more than one area of an addict s life as it has been found that just treating the addiction can be unsuccessful because going back to the same setting and environment, with peers, for example, means that relapse is more likely. So treatment involves medical intervention perhaps (such as methadone for heroin) as well as counseling and help with regard to practical issues. 6/6 Both these two answers about contributions which come from applications, as asked are likely to gain all three marks. There are examples to illustrate and the use of terms is good. All points are thoroughly explained and clear.

7 Notice how evaluation of contributions can so usefully include looking at the research method(s) used. You can look at both reliability and validity, as well as generalisability, objectivity and how scientific the methodology is. This is a useful way to get evaluation marks. Page Outline two ethical guidelines that need to be paid attention to when using human participants and for each give an example. (6 marks) One ethical guideline is competence. The researcher must be competent to run the study and must know enough about the consequences and likely findings to put any support into place that is likely to be needed. They must get ethical permission from any ethical committee involved, such as in a university setting, and this will involve demonstrating their competence. An example is Milgram in his studies from 1963, where he asked colleagues beforehand and it was not thought that many participants, if any, would go so far as to give electric shocks to participants, though in fact they did. Milgram showed competence, even though in the event, it was misplaced. He also showed competence in setting up a thorough debrief for the participants, which in the event was fully needed. Another ethical guideline with regard to using humans in psychological research is giving the right to withdraw. All participants must be allowed to leave the study at any time and at the end of the study must be given the opportunity to withdraw their results. This can be done during a debrief. The right to withdraw must be explained at the start and mentioned during the study as well, so that participants are fully aware that they can leave the study if they wish to. An example of not giving the right to withdraw is in Milgram s (1963) study where participants, when they became distressed, were not immediately given the right to withdraw, because some laid down verbal prods were used to encourage them to stay. They could in fact leave, and some did, so to an extent the right to withdraw was given, but it was not perhaps as explicit as it should have been. 6/6 Here it is likely that there are three marks for each part of the question and there could be an identification mark for each guideline, however do not assume that this is the case. Each ethical guideline here is likely to get the three marks as there is a clear outline, clear elaboration and then useful examples to show good understanding. Do not assume that there is an identification mark in questions like this, and note that in this document it is never assumed that this is the case. Prepare enough material so that you can get all the marks with the ID mark. This is because this is the last section of your two year course and it is likely that you will be expected to know enough to get full marks without an identification mark at this stage.

8 2. Outline two ethical issues that are important when using animals in psychological research. (6 marks) One ethical issue with regard to using animals is to use non-animal procedures where possible. Alternatives must be considered and there is a Scientific Procedures Act to set such standards. One example of non-animal procedures is to use humans. This is possible now that scanning techniques are more often used and more available (in terms of available equipment and being cheaper). It is possible that animal studies where lesions and ablations were used to see the function (for example) of different parts of the brain are no longer needed. Another example of non-animal procedures is to use computer simulation, as might be done with regard to finding out about language development, where computers can be set up to learn. Another ethical issue with regard to using animals is to keep discomfort to a minimum. If anesthetic is required it must be used, and it must be administered by someone who is qualified to do so. Animals must not be used repeatedly for one experiment after another and the minimum number of animals must be used. These features of studies can help to keep discomfort to a minimum. One example is Skinner s (1948) study of pigeons where only 8 were used so it was not that researchers kept doing trials. Though in fact this study came before the scientific procedures act. Also Skinner did keep the pigeons at a low body weight so it could be said that this caused discomfort (they were starved though some might argue that this was brief). 6/6 There are two parts to the question and six marks so expect there to be three for each part of the question. In this answer both parts are likely to get full marks. The strategy of explaining an issue, elaborating to explain more and then giving examples to show understanding works here in both cases. When asked to define some features of a method or a theory, which is mainly what is being asked here, then name the feature, explain it briefly, elaborate by saying more and then give an example to show clear understanding. This strategy is useful when three marks are available.

9 3. Evaluate with regard to ethical issues using animals in research in psychology. (6 marks) There are practical and ethical issues when using animals in research. Skinner used 8 pigeons in his 1948 study and by doing so he kept the number used to a minimum, which is in line with guidelines though in fact guidelines were not as thorough at that time. The introduction of guidelines protects the animals, in that they are not supposed to be caused any more discomfort than is necessary, and most societies have guidelines about the use of animals which shows that the issue is important. The need for guidelines has been underlined when looking at certain studies. The Harlows carried out quite a few studies using monkeys and privated them by not allowing them to form attachments with their mothers. The monkeys were clearly distressed and clung to a terry toweling covered wire mother when they were upset. Such findings showed that monkeys did not just attach to their mothers for food but also for comfort but in discovering this finding the monkeys were made very distressed. They also did not make good mothers themselves, so another generation of monkeys was affected. Film showed the mothers running to their wire mother clearly distressed and many found this upsetting. Questions were asked as to whether such studies were necessary. This sort of evidence supports the need for legislation like the Animal Scientific Procedures Act. Having animal guidelines means that research that might benefit humans can be carried out without upsetting members of society in general though some are still against using animals at all. One problem with having guidelines is that endangered species cannot be used which might limit research and also replication might not be possible as the minimum number of animals has to be used and the same study should not be carried out repeatedly. 4/6 All the points that receive marks would be evaluation points and it is hard in this sort of question to separate evaluation from description. Studies are used to illustrate the use of animals in studies and then comments are made to link that use to ethical issues and problems with using animals in terms of ethical guidelines. In this way studies are made relevant, because they are not just described. There are also useful comments about findings benefiting humans, which is a practical application but still an ethical point in terms of costs and benefits. The explanation of how the Harlow studies were unethical is enough for more than one mark and the point about costs and benefits is likely to gain a mark as well. However, the point about endangered species is more about a practical issue than an ethical issue, even though not using endangered species is about ethics. It is likely that there is one more mark for the Skinner study being reasonably ethical and guidelines not having been so developed then, so possibly this answer gets 4 of the 6 marks available. Be careful to separate practical issues from ethical ones with regard to using animals. Marks are not given for practical issues that are not clearly also ethical issues. You can discuss issues around using animals in a way that is ethical as well as in ways that are not.

10 Page Describe one psychological study in psychology that you can evaluate in terms of ethics. (5 marks) Milgram (1963) carried out a study to look at how far people would be obedient to an authority figure when asked to give what they thought were electric shocks to someone they thought was another participant. Participants had to listen to answers to questions and the person responding was in on the study and, in a prepared pattern, got the answers wrong. There were verbal prods that the experimenter gave to the participant if they wanted to withdraw from the study. The participant was the teacher and sat in front of what they thought was a generator giving electric shocks. There were levers that showed the pretend shocks, which the participant thought were real, went up in 15-volt stages. The experimenter told the participant to go up in steps of 15 volts and to give a shock to the learner when or if they got an answer wrong. As the answers were pre planned the answers were wrong many times such that the participant would have to go up to a high voltage. Many obeyed the experimenter. 100% went up to 300 volts and 65% went to the highest level on the generator which was 450 volts. It was concluded that even when distressed (participants became distressed, one even having a seizure), participants obeyed the authority figure which was the experimenter. 5/5 In a five mark question asking for a study to be described expect there to be a maximum of two marks for the aim(s), two for the procedure, two for the results and two for the conclusions. This answer gives enough for the five marks (the 6 possible marks give more than one way to get 5). There is a clear aim, some description of the procedure, two points about the results and then a conclusion. Make sure you describe the study as is done here, rather than talk about the study in terms of ethics, which is not what is asked. If in doubt read the next question as it will often be about evaluating or applying the study just described and that will prompt you not to evaluate or apply but to describe the study itself, as is asked here.

11 2. Evaluate one psychological study in terms of ethics. (5 marks) Milgram s (1963) study can be criticised in terms of ethics. He rigged the draw that decided whether the participant was the teacher or not and they would never have been the teacher and so were deceived. They were also deceived as they thought the study was about learning and memory when it was about obedience. Deceit is one of the BPS guidelines and researchers must adhere to it. In fact guidelines are more detailed now than in 1963 but there were still guidelines Milgram should have followed. He also did not give the right to withdraw as he planned a series of four verbal prods to persuade participants to stay when they wanted to leave the study. Although if they really did want to leave they could, and many did after 300 volts. Milgram was careful to ask colleagues about the study and nobody foresaw such obedience levels or distress, so to this extent there was competence. Also he set up a full debrief and questionnaire to make sure the participants were not distressed after the study, and most said they were happy to have taken part, so to this extent he was ethical in his procedure. 5/5 This answer gives two points about deceit, which are likely to get two marks. Then there is the good clear point about right to withdraw which is likely to get one mark and the counter argument that in fact they could withdraw, which could get a further mark. Finally there are two points showing that Milgram was ethical in showing competence and giving a debrief. So there is clearly enough for all 5 marks here. For each point you make about a study give an example from it. This applies to ethical issues about the study, as here, but also to methodological issues. For example, when discussing deceit give an example of it, and when discussing the debrief give an example. And with regard to evaluation using methodological issues (in a different question, for example) if you discuss reliability give an example of it.

12 3. Explain the ethical weaknesses of two psychological studies. (6 marks) Milgram s (1963) study can be criticised in terms of ethics. He rigged the draw that decided whether the participant was the teacher or not and they would never have been the teacher and so were deceived. They were also deceived as they thought the study was about learning and memory when it was about obedience. Deceit is one of the BPS guidelines and researchers must adhere to it. In fact guidelines are more detailed now than in 1963 but there were still guidelines Milgram should have followed. He also did not give the right to withdraw as he planned a series of four verbal prods to persuade participants to stay when they wanted to leave the study. Although if they really did want to leave the study they could, and many did after 300 volts. Milgram also did not get informed consent because he did not tell the participants what the study was about and that they were not giving real shocks. This would have meant the results were not valid, but in terms of ethics informed consent is needed. In practice if it is not possible to inform the participant fully about the study, then a debrief can put this right.. Hofling et al (1966) were criticised for the ethics of their study. They tricked the nurses into believing that the doctor on the phone was a real doctor and the drug involved was a real drug. They were deceived into believing that they had to give the higher dosage of the drug than was appropriate. Some were distressed when debriefed, which is not ethical. 5/6 There is sufficient detail about Milgram s study to get the three marks that are likely. Deceit, right to withdraw and informed consent are issues dealt with. With regard to the Hofling et al study there are two examples of deceit and a mention of the nurses being distressed when debriefed but this last point would be better elaborated upon before a mark could be guaranteed so this answer is likely to get 5 of the 6 marks. Remember to learn both strengths and weaknesses of studies. In general weaknesses are often easier to remember and to explain. So pay special attention to strengths. Consider answering this question as if it asked for two strengths, for example. NB: The same material is used for both this question and the previous one, as material can be used for different questions.

13 Page Explain one main difference between a laboratory experiment and a field experiment and one main difference between a laboratory experiment and a naturalistic experiment. In your answer use an example of each research method when explaining each difference. (6 marks) A laboratory experiment takes place in controlled conditions and an artificial environment. A field experiment takes place in the natural setting of the participants, so is different from a laboratory experiment with regard to setting. An example is that Milgram set up an experiment at Yale University to study obedience whereas Hofling et al (1966) set up their experiment in the hospital setting of the nurse participant. Milgram s participants were in an unnatural setting for them whereas the nurses were in their own setting doing their own job. A naturalistic experiment is where the independent variable is not manipulated by the experimenter but is naturally occurring whereas in a laboratory experiment the IV is manipulated by the experimenter. For example, Charlton et al (2000) measured children s behaviour before TV was able to be received on St Helena and then measured the behaviour after the children were able to watch TV programmes. The IV was before and after TV was able to be viewed but the researchers did not set this up they chose a naturally occurring situation. Bandura, however, who also looked at children s behaviour with regard to aggression, used a laboratory experiment and a set up situation where he looked to see if children copied violent acts done by adults. In the lab experiment the IV was set up (e.g. whether the adult acted violently as the children watched or acted non aggressively) and did not occur naturally. 6/6 This answer quite easily gets the full 6 marks because the differences are clearly explained. The first difference was in the setting and whether it is natural or not and the second difference is whether the IV is set up or not. Not only are the explanations clear but the examples help to show clear understanding. The question is carefully focused upon explicitly. You have to know at least one example of each research method you are studying for the Issues and Debates section. Make sure you have a chart or some way of remembering which study goes with which method then, for a question like this, you are able to use studies as examples. The question allows for an answer focusing on specific studies (a lab experiment, a field experiment and so on) rather than focusing on the methods in general.

14 2. Compare observations and questionnaires in terms of validity. (4 marks) Naturalistic observations are valid in that they take place in a participant s natural setting and so gather in that sense natural data. Questionnaires tend to lack validity because they ask about attitudes rather than about real behaviour and attitudes might not predict behaviour. For example, someone can say they are not racist but their behaviour or real feelings might show otherwise. When data are not real in this sense then they lack validity. Questionnaires are subject to demand characteristics and social desirability so they lack validity. Naturalistic observations can lack validity too because the observer can affect the situation and this means that what is being observed is no longer natural behaviour. 2/4 This answer is useful and gives clear points about the validity of both observations and questionnaires and comparisons can be assumed. However, make sure in your answer that you clearly compare. So, for example, when saying in the first sentence that naturalistic observations are valid, say in the second sentence that questionnaires are much less valid because. The final sentence does make a clear comparison, whereas the other sentences do not. The point about attitudes not predicting behaviour is well made and the example about racism helps to show understanding so this point could get two marks. To make sure of full marks for this question the comment about demand characteristics and social desirability needed to be explained. As it is here no credit would be given as these terms are not explained or put in context of how they apply to a questionnaire and how they affect validity. Each time you use terminology like demand characteristics and social desirability make sure you say enough to show that you know what the terms mean, and for this answer, enough to link them to the question (questionnaire lacking validity).

15 4. Outline the procedure of one study that used correlational analysis. (3 marks) One study that used correlational analysis was Craft et al (2003). The study was done within sport psychology. They found that there was no relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance or between somatic anxiety and performance. There was a relationship between self confidence and performance. 0/3 This answer looks at the results of the study and not the procedure so would get no marks here. The answer needs to write about the procedure of a study that uses correlational analysis, such as Craft et al, who used scores on three measures and compared them to see how related they were. It seems obvious but read the question and then check it again while you are answering it just in case you read it too quickly and started answering in the wrong way. Once you are writing your answer you would probably realise, if you read the question again, that you were off track. Page Describe one key issue you have studied that can be explained using concepts and theories from the Social Approach. (4 marks) One key issue from the social approach is explaining the My Lai massacre. Up to 500 women and children were killed in one day in My Lai in 1968 when US soldiers followed orders. The orders were to seek and destroy the Vietcong in the village and shots were fired, setting off what was called a killing spree where women and children were shot. The incident shocked the world. The issue was how what were thought of as well trained troops, who should not be attacking let alone killing civilians, could be seemingly out of control and carry out such deeds. 3/4 This is a suitable key issue from the right approach. It is described, as the question asks. The date and location of the incident are outlined and some detail given about what orders were obeyed with what result. The issue is then explained which is the idea of this being an incident that is very hard to explain. The description needs more detail and this would get around 3 marks of the 4. It is tempting to go straight into explaining the issue as this is about psychology whereas the issue is not. However, the question asks for the issue to be described, which is what is done here. Make sure you are not using psychological explanations when describing the issue. Save them for a different question about explaining the issue.

16 2. Using concepts and theories from the Cognitive Approach explain one issue that is of interest to society. (6 marks) One key issue that can be explained using cognitive psychology is the unreliability of eyewitness testimony. Loftus and other researchers found that eye witnesses were often led by misleading information and that affected their testimony. For example, if someone is asked about a stop sign or about a yield sign they remember a situation differently. And if asked about a broken headlight as opposed to the broken headlight they remember differently with regard to any possible broken glass. However, Yuille and Cutshall found that after a little while if witnesses to a real event were re-interviewed they still recalled a lot of the detail and were not swayed by misleading questions. Loftus thought it was possible that peripheral information is altered by questioning but central information is recalled more accurately. Bartlett points out that memory is reconstructive in any case. Schemas are filters for information and experiences and previous understanding can affect memory and can, therefore, affect eyewitnesses. Bartlett found that a story was recalled less as time went on and also was recalled in a way that made more sense (apparently) to the person. It is likely, therefore, that an eyewitness account will be recalled differently over time and also that it is reconstructed using past events and experiences. 6/6 There are a lot of concepts here including reconstructive memory, leading questions, Yuille and Cutshall s case study evidence and the idea that central features are better recalled. All the evidence is given as results rather than by describing the studies, and this is the right way to explain an issue. So the answer is likely to get full marks. You will have learned about eyewitness testimony and how it can be unreliable if you studied criminological psychology and possibly in your AS course when you studied cognitive psychology. The unreliability of eyewitness testimony is a useful key issue and explaining such unreliability is useful as a contribution as well: both a contribution of cognitive psychology and a contribution of criminological psychology. Note that one issue/example from psychology can fulfill many parts of the course.

17 Page Describe one key issue from the Psychodynamic Approach and explain it using concepts and theories from the approach. (12 marks) False memories are when someone remembers something clearly that is not true. For example, someone who has undergone psychoanalysis might remember that they were abused as a child and yet there might be proof that this is not the case. One such well known case is Beth Rutherford, who remembered being abused by her father but it was shown that what she recalled was not true, so this was a false memory. Some memories recovered during analysis might be true of course, and they were repressed. However, it is thought that some memories are false memories. False memory syndrome might be because someone has heard someone saying that they did something as a child and they then adopt that memory as their own. This is because we use schemas when storing memories so we sort information using our previous experiences. Information processing occurs in this way and memories are reconstructed from our experiences as well as from the situation. 3/12 The description of the key issue is reasonably detailed and fits a key issue for the Psychodynamic Approach but the concepts and theories drawn on to explain the issue are from the Cognitive Approach so would not gain marks for this question. The likely mark here is three or four of the twelve marks because the description is limited and the application of theory is not appropriate. There is mention of repression, but there is no elaboration to show what the term means. A criticism of psychoanalysis is that the questioning might lead to material that is not real in the sense that interpretation by an analyst could be accepted by a client as being true when in fact it is not. Dreams are hard to recall and hard to relate. It is possible to interpret them in many different ways if using symbols to uncover the latent content, for example. So there is room for a client to accept an interpretation as real and to incorporate it as a memory, when it did not happen. There is also the issue of the power of the analyst. A client is likely to accept what the analyst says as the analyst is in the position of power. Masson (1989) talked about such power. Use such points when discussing false memory as a key issue of the psychodynamic approach. The essay marks include marks for quality of written communication, which means not only good spelling and grammar, but, importantly, good use of relevant terminology. Make sure you are using terms relevant to the appropriate approach to ensure you are focusing correctly on the question.

18 Page Outline what is meant by cultural bias. (2 marks) Cultural bias refers to the way an attitude or finding from one culture might be affected by the culture itself and conclusions might not be sensibly drawn using the finding and applying it to another culture. Ethnocentrism is cultural bias because it involves taking findings or attitudes from one culture and applying them to all cultures, whereas another culture might not function in the same way. For example, findings about obedience in the US might not be generalisable to a collectivist culture because the findings were from an individualistic culture. Research that is ethnocentric is focused on one culture often to the detriment of another different culture. 2/2 The example helps this definition because ethnocentrism is a cultural bias and the example of obedience studies helps to illustrate this. It is clear that bias is being discussed, which focuses well on the question. It is a good plan to have definitions of terms ready and learned off by heart because it saves some thinking time in the exam. If you have not already prepared a succinct answer, then take the time to write quite a bit as defining terms like this is quite tricky. An example, as so often in this course, helps to show understanding.

19 2. Describe two examples of the application of cross cultural studies in psychology. (8 marks) One way in which cross-cultural studies have been used in psychology is when looking at how infants form attachments with their mothers. Ainsworth studied such attachment and used the strange situation test. This method was used by Ainsworth in Baltimore in the US. It was also used in Japan, Germany and other cultures. The aim was to follow a set procedure and to see how the infants and mothers reacted. Their reactions were recorded by observation. The set procedure involved a mother and child interacting and then a stranger entering the room. The stranger was left with the child and the focus of the study was on how the infant would react when the mother came back into the room. There were said to be three attachment types. The most usual one in the USA was secure attachment, which meant the infant looking to the mother for comfort and reassurance. In other cultures the pattern of attachment types was said to be different leading to conclusions that mothering patterns in a specific culture could affect attachment type. Another way in which cross-cultural studies can be used in psychology is when looking at cultural relativism and mental health issues. For example, hearing voices in one culture might have a spiritual aspect whereas in another culture is likely to be diagnosed as schizophrenia. 5/8 The material on the strange situation and studying attachment types (from child psychology) is thorough and is likely to get full marks as there is a clear description of the area of research and examples to illustrate. The material on cultural relativism and schizophrenia or mental health issues is relevant and useful but lacks detail so is likely to get only one of the possible four marks so this whole answer is likely to get 5 marks instead of 8 marks. In the specification when what is asked for is plural as in the section on the application of cross cultural studies then you can be asked for two examples, as is done above. This question is a little ambiguous as it could apply to areas of psychology and the answer here takes that interpretation. Or it could apply to two actual studies.

20 3. Explain the potential effect of cross-cultural bias in interpretation of cross-cultural studies. (6 marks) Cross-cultural studies have to be interpreted in order to be compared. The idea of such studies is often to be able to compare studies often with regard to seeing whether an attribute or characteristic is natural or learned. For example, if all infants and mothers have the same attachment types (more or less) across all cultures then it is thought that attachment is innate. Whereas where there are differences in attachment types between cultures then learning probably has a role. The problem is that studies done in different cultures, even if using standardised procedures, have differences that are hard to control. So comparing them can be biased. For example, the strange situation is the same wherever the study is carried out but how it is interpreted by the mothers and infants might be different, which would affect the findings. Also mothers and infants in different cultures behave differently and there are different cultural expectations so those might affect attachment types rather than there being a universal type that is good and those cultures who do not achieve (in the main) that type are not so good at parenting. Another potential bias is that the researcher s own cultural beliefs (such as what is good parenting) might affect their interpretations which would mean data are subjectively gathered. This is an example of ethnocentric bias where a researcher thinks their own cultural attitudes and aspects of their own culture are right. 5/6 There are 5 or 6 marks here. The first part is largely description and, although it sets up some marking points, it gets no marks itself. Then the point about standardised procedures but still having difficulty in controlling differences is a good point that is likely to get a mark. Another mark is likely for showing that there might be different interpretation of a procedure in one culture as opposed to another and that might give bias. Another mark is for extending this idea to show that cultural attitudes affect data as well as any procedure of a study. Further credit is likely for explaining a researcher might be subjective in their interpretation and further credit again for linking this idea in with ethnocentrism. This appears to be five of the six marks although there is additional material about the nature-nurture debate that, although not directly linked to the actual question, might gain some credit. It would be better to explain that cultural bias would come from the nurture side of the debate as a universal aspect of people should not suffer from cultural bias. Any material about cultural bias when interpreting cross cultural studies gains credit and there is no real right answer. The question asks for possible effects so you know that as long as you give evidence for any claims you make then your points should be credit worthy. This is often the case in psychology as there are often no right answers. Having said that there are common answers, such as the examples from attachment studies. Even if you did not study child psychology it would be useful to look at that material for questions such as this.

21 Page Describe what is meant by scientific method. (4 marks) Laboratory experiments are scientific because they involve controls and keeping everything constant except for what is being manipulated (the IV) and what is being measured (the DV). Quantitative data are more scientific than qualitative data because there is objectivity, which is also scientific. Qualitative data are not scientific because they need to be interpreted and there is no precise measurement. 2/4 This answer is likely to get two of the four marks. The explanation about needing controls and keeping things constant is worth a mark as is the idea of objectivity. However, the question asks for what is science, rather than what is not science so the material on qualitative data does not gain credit. Also the answer is not well focused on what science is. There is credit for saying experiments are scientific because the answer explains why, and the same for quantitative data, but it is better to explain science more directly, such as mentioning cause and effect, deriving hypotheses from theory and testing against reality (empirically). The candidate knows that both experiments and quantitative data are scientific and says why, so although they have not directly said what scientific method is they have explained some scientific methods, which works. More along those lines might have meant full marks. Although this answer is not going to get many marks it is a good idea if you are stuck in an answer to draw on examples as this answer has done. 2. Give one example each for when psychology uses a scientific approach and when it does not. (4 marks) Cognitive psychology uses a scientific approach because it uses experiments and strict controls to try to uncover features of information processing. The approach looks at memory, for example, and what factors cause the memory to fail it is about cause and effect information, gathering empirical data to test hypotheses. Psychodynamic psychology does not use a scientific approach because it relies on case study material which looks in depth at one individual and it is hard to generalise from the findings to say they are true of everyone. 4/4 This answer is likely to get full marks because the two approaches are given and then an explanation of why in each case they are or are not scientific. Whether an approach is scientific often rests on what research methods are used so this answer focuses on the methods. Another way of looking at science is to look at the subject matter and point out that, for example, the Cognitive Approach makes the subject matter measurable by looking at number of words recalled whereas the Psychodynamic Approach finds it harder to make its subject matter measurable.