5 THE EFFECT OF OPEN/CLOSED CYCLES AND LAKE OPENING HEIGHT ON THE ECOLOGY OF SMITHS LAKE, NSW AUSTRALIA: AN ASSESSMENT OF MANAGEMENT SCENARIOS

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1 5 CHAPTER 5 THE EFFECT OF OPEN/CLOSED CYCLES AND LAKE OPENING HEIGHT ON THE ECOLOGY OF SMITHS LAKE, NSW AUSTRALIA: AN ASSESSMENT OF MANAGEMENT SCENARIOS 5.1 ABSTRACT An ecological model is used to simulate management scenarios of different open/closed cycles and lake opening heights for Smiths Lake. Management scenarios considered are cycle durations of months, open phases of 7-60 days and lake opening heights of m. Due to a highly forested catchment and small catchment area to lake area ratio, Smiths Lake is capable of assimilating its current nutrient loads without plankton blooms or a decrease in seagrass biomass. When catchment loads are increased by 10 the duration of the open/closed cycle increases and there is an increase in seagrass biomass. Small and large phytoplankton both increase in biomass as the open duration increases. Small and large phytoplankton growth is generally limited by phosphorus, and seagrass growth is limited by nitrogen under normal catchment loads. Due to the shallow depths and low phytoplankton biomass, seagrass only becomes light limited when the nutrient and suspended solids loads are increased 10. This switch to light limitation only decreases the seagrass biomass for short periods. 112

2 5.2 INTRODUCTION Intermittently Open and Closed Lakes or Lagoons (ICOLLs) are characterised by low freshwater inflow leading to a berm forming across the entrance. Following a rise in lake height, these barriers are intermittently breached. These open/closed cycles are intermittent due to the nature of rainfall in south-eastern Australia (EPA NSW, 2000), and highly variable between open/closed cycles. The timing and frequency of the entrance opening is related to factors such as the size of the catchment, rainfall, evaporation, the height of the berm and creek or river inputs (Roy et al., 2001). Of the 70 ICOLLs in New South Wales (NSW) which have a waterway area of greater than 1 hectare, 49 are closed for more than 66% of the time (Haines et al., 2006) The long closed phases and poor exchange of water with the ocean (as a result of intermittent opening) gives ICOLLs a long residence time, which acts to retain nutrients and phytoplankton within the estuary. Flow regulation and changes in the water residence times have been suggested to have as large an effect in coastal receiving waters as increased nutrient loads (Harris, 1999b). Therefore, an assessment on opening regimes is just as important as catchment nutrient loads. Many ICOLLs are opened for flood mitigation purposes, without considering the effects on ecology. Managers often wait until the last possible moment to artificially open an ICOLL. Reasons for this may be monetary or an attempt to retain an opening height which replicates, as closely as possible, the natural opening height. Due to foreshore development, the artificial opening height may be lower than the natural opening height. Depending upon the level of modification in urbanised catchments, this may not maintain current ecological characteristics. Keeping an ICOLL opening regime as natural as possible in an unnatural catchment will increase water residence allowing the accumulation of nutrients and plankton within the system. This chapter attempts, through a modelling study, to quantify the impact of different open/closed cycles on nutrients, plankton and seagrass dynamics within Smiths Lake, Australia. Smiths Lake is currently opened artificially by Great Lakes Council at ~2.1m AHD (G. Tuckerman Great Lakes Council, personal communication, 2005). The council may 113

3 increase this lake opening height, however little is known about what the ecological impacts would be of the increased closure time and lake depth as a result of this. The Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park, which includes Smiths Lake, was declared on the 1 st December 2006 under the Marine Parks Act Great Lakes Council is now required to seek approval from the Marine Park Authority to artificially open the lake. This study will increase the understanding of the ecological effects of the open/closed cycles. A 1-box biogeochemical model has previously been used to simulate the response of coastal lagoons to changing nitrogen loads and water residence times (Webster and Harris, 2004). The study focussed on the response of primary producers to increasing and decreasing nitrogen loads, and how the response is altered by changes in the flushing rate of the lagoon. The model showed that the impact of highly episodic nutrient loading regimes increases the vulnerability of the coastal lagoon (Webster and Harris, 2004). Episodic loads caused phytoplankton blooms at lower catchment loads than occurred under steady loading regimes. This study varies three characteristics of the physical forcing to examine the effect of different open/closed cycles on plankton and seagrass dynamics within Smiths Lake. These are the duration of the open/closed cycle, the open duration and the lake height at opening. The ratio of the closed phases to the open phase (Entrance Closure Index) has been considered a critical morphometric parameter in the study of the sensitivity of ICOLLs (Haines et al., 2006), however doesn t take into account, the duration of each phase. If upper limits can be placed upon controllable aspects such as maximum lake height or maximum closed period then this will assist managers. Managers do have some control over the open closed cycle and lake heights. Due to excessive lake height and catchment flooding, an opening may not be able to be delayed. However, if an ICOLL has been closed for a long period of time, it may be prudent to open the lake at a lower height than would normally happen to allow for flushing of excess nutrients. Other issues not examined in this paper that also need to be taken into account include fish recruitment and larval dispersal and encroachment of surrounding vegetation on the shoreline. 114

4 The aim of this chapter is to simulate management scenarios, using the ecological model, to examine the effect of different durations of open/closed cycles, open durations and opening lake heights for Smiths Lake. 115

5 5.3 METHODS In this chapter, the coupled ecological-transport model (Everett et al., 2007) is configured to examine possible open/closed cycles of Smiths Lake. All aspects of the ecological model remain the same, including the initial conditions (Table 5.1). The 11-box configuration (Figure 5.1) of the transport model (Chapter 3) is used, with an idealised lake height, flushing regime and solar radiation forcing. An idealised routine was used to reduce the variability from model components which weren t being tested during these simulations. Under the idealised configuration, the lake height increases linearly from 0.4 m to the opening height for the particular simulation (Figure 5.2). When the ICOLL opens to the ocean, it drains for 48 hours to a lake height of 0.4 m AHD (these are the standard values for a typical Smiths Lake opening as recorded by the Manly Hydraulics Water Level Recorder). A 12 hour sinusoid tidal exchange, with amplitude of 0.05 m, is imposed for the length of time as specified by the various open durations. The sinusoidal amplitude used in the model is chosen to be representative of the average flushing rates of Smiths Lake. The average solar radiation over 12 months (95 W m -2 ) is used for the ecological model in order to remove any seasonal oscillations which may occur. A lake opening (decreased depth) would invoke a different response if it occurred in summer (increased light), as opposed to winter (decreased light) for example. These combined effects are important for management decision making however and should be examined in future studies. Three characteristics of the physical forcings of Smiths Lake are examined (Figure 5.3). These are 1) open/closed cycle duration (months), 2) open duration (days) and 3) opening height (m AHD). The open/closed cycle duration is the total time between two successive closed phases (i.e. one complete open and closed cycle) and is varied between 12 and 60 months (Figure 5.3). The open duration is the total time the lake is open to the ocean and is varied between 7 and 60 days. The opening height of the lake is the height at which the lake opens to the ocean and varies between 1.5 and 3.5 m AHD. Simulations with increased loads (10 ) of nutrients and total suspended solids are also completed. The Australian Height Datum (AHD) will be used to refer to lake height, rather than average lake depth which was discussed in the previous chapter. Each simulation is repeated 5 times to allow the model to reach steady state. 116

6 The changes in the physical forcings listed above were chosen to be representative of possible open/closed cycles of Smiths Lake. Since June 1996, Smiths Lake has been artificially opened 7 times, at an average of once every 17 months, but varying between 11 and 24 months. Once connected to the ocean, Smiths Lake remains open for an average of 62 days with a range of 12 to 120 days (data courtesy of Manly Hydraulics Laboratory). The cycle length in this paper is beyond the range of actual Smiths Lake openings over the past 10 years, however, with decreasing rainfall in eastern Australia (Hennessy et al., 2004), these scenarios are justified. 117

7 Table 5.1 Biological state variables used in the model. The mean and range of initial conditions after the model spin-up are presented. Ocean boundary conditions and their symbol and units are also shown. State Variable Symbol Mean Values (and Range) of Initial Conditions Ocean Boundary Condition Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen DIN 7.3 ( ) mol N m -3 Units Dissolved Inorganic Phosphorus DIP 5.1 ( ) mol P m -3 Small Phytoplankton PS 1.1 ( ) mol N m -3 Large Phytoplankton PL 3.3 ( ) mol N m -3 Small Zooplankton ZS 9.8 (9.4 10) mol N m -3 Large Zooplankton ZL 1.1 ( ) mol N m -3 Epiphytic and Benthic Microalgae EP 8.4 (7.0 13) mol N m -2 Seagrass SG 6.0 (0 8.2) mol N m -2 Refractory Detritus RD 21 ( ) mol N m -2 Sediment Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen DINsed 3.3 (0.2 20) mol N m -2 Unflocculated Phosphorus Punfloc 2.7 ( ) mol P m -3 Flocculated Phosphorus Pfloc 2.0 ( ) mol P m -3 Sediment Dissolved Inorganic Phosphorus DIPsed 1.8 ( ) mol P m -2 Unflocculated Sediment Phosphorus Psed_unfloc 3.1 ( ) 0 mol P m -2 Flocculated Sediment Phosphorus Psed_floc 5.6 ( ) 0 mol P m -2 Unflocculated Total Suspended Solids TSSunfloc 5.2 ( ) kg TSS m -3 Flocculated Total Suspended Solids TSSfloc 2.2 ( ) kg TSS m

8 Figure Map of Smiths Lake with model boxes and sampling sites included. The ocean waters were sampled at Seal Rocks, approximately 4 km south of Smiths Lake. 119

9 Figure A plot showing the idealised lake height configuration used in the simulations. Simulations are run with different combinations of Lake Opening Height (m), Cycle Duration (months) and Open Phase Duration (days). 120

10 Open/Closed Cycles (months) Open Duration (Days) Opening Lake Height (m) Nutrient/TSS Loads 1 10 Figure Physical forcings applied to the ecological model. All combinations of the forcings were simulated. 121

11 5.4 RESULTS Changes in Nutrient Concentration and Biomass of Plankton with Lake Opening Regime DIN concentration increases in simulations with a higher opening height. The mean DIN concentration at a lake opening height of 3.5 m AHD (Figure 5.5 A) is times higher than the mean DIN concentration at 2.0 m AHD (Figure 5.4 A). This result is consistent for each combination of cycle duration and open phase. There is also an increasing DIN concentration in simulations with short cycle duration consistent for all lake depths (Figure 5.4 A). The highest mean DIN concentrations occur during the 1 year cycle, and are consistent across all open phases. When compared to a lake opening height of 2.0 m AHD (Figure 5.4 B) there is a decrease in DIP concentration by 8-12 % at a lake opening height of 3.0 m (Figure 5.5 B). The highest mean DIP values occur at an open/closed cycle duration of 5 years and an open duration of 60 days. For a lake opening height of 2 m AHD, PS and PL both increase in biomass as the open duration increases (Figure 5.4 C,D). The highest biomass of PS occurs during simulations with a long open duration (60 days) and long open/closed cycle duration (5 years), while the highest biomass of PL occurs during simulations with long open phases (30-60 days) and short open/closed cycle duration (1 year). The same trend occurs for an opening height of 3.5 m AHD (Figure 5.5 C,D), however there is an overall reduction in biomass of 7-11% for PS and 3-10% for PL. The zooplankton biomass corresponds with phytoplankton biomass for simulations with lake opening heights of both 2.0 and 3.0 m AHD. The highest biomass of ZS and ZL occurs during simulations with long open phases (60 days). 122

12 Figure 5.4 The contours represent the mean weighted biomass of the state variables at a lake opening height of 2.0 m. DIN, DIP, PS, PS, ZS and ZL are weighted by volume. EP and SG are weighted by lake surface area. The 3D figure shows the mean concentration/biomass from the final closed phase. The mean value is calculated from the final closed phase and all 11 lake boxes. The white crosses show the location of the mean simulation values used to create the contours 123

13 Figure 5.5 The contours represent the mean weighted biomass of the state variables at a lake opening height of 3.5 m. DIN, DIP, PS, PS, ZS and ZL are weighted by volume. EP and SG are weighted by lake surface area. The mean value is calculated from the final closed phase and all 11 lake boxes. The white crosses show the location of the mean simulation values used to create the contours 124

14 5.4.2 Changes in Seagrass Biomass with Lake Opening Regime The mean biomass of SG shows a small increase with an increase in lake opening height (Figure 5.6). The highest mean biomass of SG is mol N m -2 and occurs during a combination of a 5 year open/closed cycle and an opening height of 3.5 m AHD. The lowest mean biomass of SG is mol N m -2 and occurs during a combination of a 1 year open/closed cycle and an opening height of 1.5 m AHD. In both instances, the duration of the open phase does not substantially affect the mean SG biomass Changes in Productivity and Mortality with Opening Regimes For both PS and PL cells, the lowest productivity occurs at short open phases and increased depths (Figure 5.7). As the open duration increases, the mean productivity generally increases. The highest productivity of PS and PL is and mol N m -3 d -1 respectively and occurs at the opening height examined (1.5 m AHD). This is in contrast to SG, where the productivity increases with opening height and open/closed cycle duration. The highest productivity is mol N m -2 d -1 and occurs at an opening height of 3.5 m AHD and open/closed cycle of 5 years. The increasing productivity of phytoplankton corresponds with increasing grazing control (mortality) of phytoplankton by zooplankton (Figure 5.8). Mortality of PS and PL increases from and mol N m -3 d -1 to and mol N m -3 d -1 respectively. The mortality of SG also increases from to mol N m -2 d -1 with increasing productivity 125

15 Figure 5.6 Lake area-weighted mean biomass of SG at lake heights of 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 and 3.5 m. The mean value is calculated from the final closed phase and all 11 lake boxes. The white crosses show the location of the mean simulation values used to create the contours 126

16 Figure 5.7 Mean productivity of PS, PL and SG at different lake opening heights. The mean productivity is calculated from the final closed phase and all 11 lake boxes. The white crosses show the location of the mean simulation values used to create the contours. 127

17 Figure 5.8 Mean mortality of PS, PL and SG at different lake opening heights. The mean mortality is calculated from the final closed phase and all 11 lake boxes. The white crosses show the location of the mean simulation values used to create the contours 128

18 5.4.4 Changes in Growth Limitation with Increased Loads Similar to results in previous chapters, the growth of PS and PL is limited by phosphorus (Figure 5.9). Their biomasses are slowly oscillating out of phase, as seen in previous model results, with only 2-3 oscillations per year. When loads of DIN+DIP+TSS are increased by 10 there is an increase in the frequency and amplitude of the oscillations (Figure 5.10). This change in oscillation structure corresponds with a switch in the growth limitation of phytoplankton from phosphorus (blue) to nitrogen (black) and maximum growth rate limited (red). The growth of PS is limited by nitrogen when its biomass is increasing and by its maximum growth rate when the biomass is decreasing. The opposite is true of PL, which is limited by its maximum growth rate as its biomass is increasing and by nitrogen when its biomass is decreasing. During the simulations with observed catchment loads, SG is nitrogen limited (black) in model simulations (Figure 5.9 C,F,I). When catchment loads are increased by 10, SG remains nitrogen limited at the beginning of the closed phase, however switches to being light limited towards the end of the cycle (Figure 5.10 C,F,I). This switch to light limitation corresponds with an increase in phytoplankton biomass, and therefore water column light attenuation. During the open phase there is switch in SG growth limitation to its maximum growth rate. When SG is light limited in the 10 catchment load simulations there is a switch from a stable increase in biomass to a decline in biomass and increased temporal variability. This decline towards the end of the open/closed cycle is reversed during the open phase and beginning of the next cycle, allowing SG to once again attain a higher biomass. 129

19 Figure 5.9 Mean biomass of PS, PL, and SG coloured by process limiting growth rate at baseline nutrient loads. 12 month lake cycles with open phase durations of 14, 30 and 60 months are plotted down the columns. The colours represent the growth limitation options of nitrogen (black), phosphorus (blue), light (green) and maximum metabolic rate (red). The grey shaded areas represent the time the lake is open to the ocean. 130

20 Figure 5.10 Mean biomass of PS, PL, and SG coloured by process limiting growth rate at 10 nutrient loads. 12 month open/closed cycles with open phase durations of 14, 30 and 60 days are plotted down the columns. The colours represent the growth limitation options of nitrogen (black), phosphorus (blue), light (green) and maximum metabolic rate (red). The grey shaded areas represent the time the lake is open to the ocean. 131

21 5.5 DISCUSSION Smiths Lake is capable of assimilating its current nutrient loads without a decline in seagrass biomass or persistent phytoplankton blooms. Smiths Lake has the lowest catchment to lake area ratio of all NSW intermittently open estuaries (Roy et al., 2001), giving it an increased chance of assimilating increased nutrient loads. As a result of the small catchment area relative to lake area, and highly forested catchment, the catchment loads are low compared to other NSW estuaries. The nutrient load for Smiths Lake has been calculated as between 0.5 mg DIN m -2 d -1 from field data (unpublished data from this study) and 5 mg TN m -2 d -1 from modelled data (CSIRO, 2003). Other estuaries in eastern Australia have much higher loads. Lake Macquarie (permanently open) and Narrabeen Lakes (ICOLL) for example, have an estimated 95% catchment clearance and loads of 70 mg DIN m -2 d -1. Turros and Coila Lakes (ICOLLs), which only have 60% catchment clearance have loads of 20 mg DIN m -2 d -1. As found in previous chapters, PS and PL are generally growth limited by phosphorus, and SG is growth limited by nitrogen. Changes in the nutrient availability of DIN and DIP drive changes in the biomass of the corresponding growth limited state variables. Due to the availability of DIN in the water column throughout the closed phases, a longer closed phase results in an increased biomass of SG (Figure 5.4 H). The ocean provides an additional source of DIP to the low DIP in the lake. Therefore, the longer the lake is open to the ocean, the higher the mean biomass of phosphorus-limited phytoplankton. The longer the cycle duration is, the longer the lake must stay open to the ocean to maintain the same biomass of DIP, PS and EP (Figure 5.4 B,C,G). A reduction in the length of the open phase, for a given cycle duration, results in a reduced average biomass of DIP, PS and EP. The same trends are apparent for an opening height of 3.5 m (Figure 5.5). These increases in biomass also correspond to increased productivity (Figure 5.7). As the length of the open phase increases, so does the availability of DIP and therefore phytoplankton productivity. This increase in productivity however doesn t increase the phytoplankton biomass to a high enough level to significantly decrease the light availability to the SG due to increased grazing (Figure 5.8). As a result, even at depths of 3.5 m and 5 year closure periods, SG maintains a large biomass. This is mainly due to the 132

22 severe nutrient limitation of phytoplankton which prevents significant blooms, and the low TSS loads due to the highly forested catchment Increased Nutrient Loads Interestingly, when nutrient loads are increased, as could occur with future development in the catchment, SG is able to attain a biomass which is double the biomass at baseline catchment loads (Figure 5.10). During these cycles, SG switches from nitrogen limited at the beginning of the closed phase, to light limited towards the end, and maximum growth rate limited during the open phase. The light limitation towards the end of the closed phase acts to reduce the biomass of SG and corresponds with an increase in the combined biomass of small and large phytoplankton. While growing at its maximum growth rate through the open phase, the biomass of SG recovers from the decline. At the present loads entering Smiths Lake, there is no decline in SG biomass or blooms or PS or PL, as a result of changes in the lake cycle duration or open phase duration. Contrary to initial expectations, the biomass of SG is not decreased by a long closed phase and an accumulation of nutrients (Figure 5.4). Because phytoplankton and SG are limited by two different nutrients, changes in their biomass rarely occur simultaneously, as the opening phases are driving the DIP availability and DIN accumulation during the closed phases is driving the DIN availability Artificial Openings There are many management issues which must be taken into account when assessing the best time to artificially open an ICOLL. This study focuses solely on the biogeochemical processes which are altered by various opening regimes, but managers must be aware of other ecological considerations which must be taken into account when managing an ICOLL. Managers must not only consider the dynamics of plankton and seagrass communities as a result of water residence time, lake height or nutrient loads, but also what effect a particular open closed cycle will have on other ecological communities such as shoreline vegetation due to change lake height conditions, the physiological effect of changes in salinity on estuarine organisms, the physical stress of an opening on seagrass and benthic organisms or the effect of recruitment on fish communities. Jones and West (2005) for example, observed significant physical damage to seagrass beds in Lake 133

23 Conjola after its entrance was artificially opened. The entrance works caused a substantial increase in tidal currents, larger fluctuations in water levels and higher salinities. Haines et al. (2006) recommended that coastal lagoon entrances should not be opened artificially to reduce sensitivity to external inputs without thorough environmental investigation, as changing the entrance behaviour may lead to the impacts listed above. This study provides some of the investigation required, by examining the impact of various open/closed cycles on biological variables such as nutrients, plankton and seagrass communities. If nutrient loads are a problem, manipulating the opening regime of an ICOLL will not always be successful as open phases (besides the initial opening) are extremely hard to manage. If the lake closes early, while still in a eutrophic state, the manager is faced with the decision of whether to reopen it. A subsequent opening would again close relatively quickly as the initial breakout will not be enhanced by erosion of the emptying lake. For managers in ICOLLs other than Smiths Lake where lake height is more of an issue, it may prove advantageous to wait as long as possible before opening the lake as it allows for a maximum breakout and potentially a longer open phase which will more fully flush the system. In Smiths Lake, there is the possibility of increasing the opening height by a small amount. Increased lake height will likely extend the duration of the closed phase and therefore the accumulated loads. However, due to the low catchment loads entering the lake, an increase in lake height alone does not reduce the biomass of SG. If catchment loads are increased through future development and urbanisation, the opening regime may become more influential. Results in this study show that SG switches to light limitation during the longer closed phases when catchment loads are increased 10 (Figure 5.10). Interestingly, this acts to increase the SG biomass, however it shows that light availability for SG is declining which could initiate a further sharp decline in SG biomass. When the light availability is reduced, and biomass begins to decline, these results also indicate the importance of longer open phases to allow the recovery of the SG. It is rare that nutrient enrichment will stimulate the production of the benthic macrophytes as in this study. The well-documented response would instead be to reduce their 134

24 distribution and production within the ecosystem through light limitation (Borum and Sand-Jensen, 1996). Due to the shallow depths of Smiths Lake, and the low catchment loads (even at 10 ), light limitation only becomes growth limiting for SG after 180 days of a 1 year closed phase (Figure 5.10). The reduction in biomass is small, and is less than the increase during the first half of the cycle. Hence, the overall change in SG biomass is positive, even in cycles with light limitation Model Shortcomings Potentially important processes which are not captured in the model are vertical stratification and denitrification. The possible importance of denitrification in coastal lagoons has been suggested by Webster and Harris (2004). In their model, nutrient loads above 45 mg N m -2 d -1 decreases the denitrification rate to zero, and releases nitrogen into the water column. These loads are almost 100 higher than the loads calculated from this study for Smiths Lake; however it is an important consideration when applying a similar model in more developed estuaries where loads of this magnitude are relevant. In Smiths Lake the shutdown of denitrification and the release of nitrogen into the water column could also occur through anoxic bottom layers as a result of vertical stratification. Stratification within Smiths Lake has been shown to result in a reduction in dissolved oxygen in the bottom layer (Gale et al., 2006), with anoxic conditions potentially resulting in ammonia release from the sediment An increased duration of closed phase is generally a result of decreased rainfall. As a result, there is the potential for increased evaporation during longer closed phases. Evaporation is not accurately captured within the idealised configuration of the transport model (Figure 4.1). As a result the nutrient loads are typically underestimated at longer lake cycles. An idealised lake height was used in order to test the various opening cycles which are possible. More fluctuations around the idealised lake height would allow more realistic predictions of the fluctuating lake height (i.e. Figure 2.2). Alternatively, the increased rate of lake rise at short closed phases will deposit nutrients more quickly into the lake. This however, does not translate into a change in biomass in this study. 135

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