Running head: PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 1. Perspectives on Comics and their Literary Merit. Melissa H. Schack. San Jose State University

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1 Running head: PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 1 Perspectives on Comics and their Literary Merit Melissa H. Schack San Jose State University September 11, 2014 Author Note Melissa Schack, Department of Information, San Jose State University. Correspondence concerning this article should be sent to melissa.schack@sjsu.edu The author would like to thank Dr. Susan Maret for her guidance and suggestions.

2 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 2 Abstract The purpose of this paper is to explore the views, definitions and approaches to comics and to give the reader an idea of the benefits of including comics in libraries and classrooms. In recent years, comics (in all their forms) have been cited as a medium which have gained the attention of researchers and educators worldwide. Yet, the stigma against comics stands while advocates such as teachers and librarians struggle to show their literary merit. In doing so, comics have been shown to help struggling readers, support a multimodal literacy, challenge the views of literature norms, and create a medium where ideas are expressed through a hybrid form of art and literature. Keywords: collection development, comics, graphic novels, library collections, literary merit, literature

3 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 3 Perspectives on Comics and their Literary Merit Recently, comics have gained the esteem of librarians and teachers as a different way of looking at literacy. Although some researchers often compare comics to visual art or literature, this paper shows that comics are worth considering in their own right as an artistic medium. Also, comics have revealed that they are not only of aesthetic and literary value but also prove to be beneficial when used in education. When selecting materials for collections, librarians and teachers must consider these qualities as well as the patron s intellectual freedom. This paper will expand on the current research and ideas by uniting the different disciplines arguments for the advancement of comics in research and library collections which is unique in creating a broad perspective. Also, this paper will continue the view of comics as a medium and as a hybrid of art and literature but will maintain that comics should be perceived on their own terms. Literature Review In Versaci s book This Book Contains Graphic Language (2007), the author reflects on comics in relation to other media forms such as journalism, memoir, film and classic literature and emphasizes how comics are comparable and sometimes a superior tool to convey information. Furthermore, Chute s (2008) research summarizes the past and present views on comics which she considers a hybrid medium of words and images. Chute (2008) further emphasizes the complexity of the form and how it opens questions in literature that need reanalyzing. Likewise, Pagliaro s (2014) article also explores the views and history of comics but with a focus on literary merit and the

4 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 4 use of comics for instruction. Pagliaro establishes criteria for comics with literary merit and suggests ways of choosing the most appropriate graphic novels. The research literature indicates that comics are shown to be an effective education tool since 1948 through their use of text and images to quickly convey information (Eisner, 1974; McCloud, 1993). The use of comics in the classroom and library demonstrate positive influence with struggling readers (Pagliaro, 2014) and also with helping students gain knowledge through multimodal literacy (Thomas, 2012), The general consensus among researchers (Chute, 2008; McCloud, 1993; Versaci, 2007) of comics is that once the reader can get past the negative views of comics such as those spread by Wertham (1954), then the benefits have yet to all be discovered. Discussion In order to determine the literary merit of comics, it is necessary to distinguish between the different terms to describe comics and to show the strengths and weaknesses of using those terms. Like Versaci (2007), this paper uses the terms comics and graphic novels interchangeably though there are some important differences between these terms and other terms favored by other authors (p. 30). Terms used to describe comics are often chosen to reflect the length of the work. According to Chute (2008), a comic strip can be anywhere from a few panels to a few pages while a cartoon is a single panel. A comic book is traditionally 32 pages long and can be a collection of comic strips or its own story. Comic books are often a series of stories which come out regularly and are sometimes later published together into a graphic novel. Yet, a graphic novel is not always a group of comic books but instead a

5 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 5 longer work first published in that form. In turn, graphic novels also may appear in a series of issues (p ). The term comics is often set aside in favor of the more acceptable term graphic novel due to the negative history surrounding comics and since novels are considered a more respectable literary form (Versaci, 2007, p. 30). Yet, as Chute (2008) suggests, the term graphic novel is a misleading term since they are not novels. Authors, such as Chute, use the term graphic narrative in an attempt to find a more appropriate moniker (Chute, 2008, p. 453). Labio (2011) argues how the term graphic novel and graphic narrative can be limiting definitions that exclude many works which as comics are then considered less worthy for reading and study (p ). She states, [T]he eagerness with which the phrase graphic novel has been adopted in academic writing points to a stubborn refusal to accept popular works on their own terms. Comics reminds us of this vital dimension (Labio, 2011, p. 126). This paper attempts to avoid these exclusions creating a broad examination under the general term of comics with the occasional reference to graphic novels. In doing so, the stigma of the term comics will not be further promoted by omission. Now, it is uncertain when the first comics made their appearance. Eisner (1974) states that comics were used as man s earliest recorded communication (p. 75). McCloud (1993) goes on to suggest that comics have been seen in works by the Ancient Egyptians but likely carry back further making their starting date difficult to determine (p ). However far back comics go, it appears that the negative view of comics is fairly recent.

6 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 6 Recognized by McCloud (1993) as the father of modern comics of the early 1800 s, Rodolphe Töpffer considered his work in comics a hobby. He created works as neither an artist nor writer but in a new form that used an intermingling of words and pictures (McCloud, 1993, p. 17). Töpffer s failure to take the medium seriously sets the stage for the popular opinion of comics even today. Though comics were not taken as serious literature, in 1954 Seduction of the Innocent written by the psychiatrist, Fredric Wertham, was released which turned comics from being trivial to harmful. Wertham wrote that all the negative effects of crime comics on children in the intellectual, emotional and volitional spheres are intensified by the harm done in the perceptual sphere. Comic books are death on reading (as cited in Pagliaro, 2014, p. 32). Throughout his book, Wertham (1954) shows examples of how comics drive youth to violence, delinquency and sexual deviancy. For instance, in chapter 3 The Road to the Child, Wertham gives an example of a child hanging himself and a comic book has been found beneath the child s body showing a hanging which Wertham claims has happened in a number of cases (Wertham, 1954). Wertham s book raised the concern of parents and the United States Senate. In 1954, a Senate Subcommittee held hearings to investigate the relation between comics and juvenile delinquency. The hearings concluded that comics do influence youth negatively, but refused to use government censorship. Instead, the Subcommittee recommended a review board to oversee publication of comics, the Comics Magazine Association of America. On July 1, 1954, the Association created and adopted the Comics Code which had a strict set of rules that published comics were required to

7 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 7 follow and were designed to deter youth from reading anything of bad character in order to hold the seal of approval. Though publishers were not required to hold the seal of approval, many stores would not carry comics that did not (Pagliaro, 2014, p ; Bors, 2004, p. 19; Subcommittee to Investigate Juvenile Delinquency, 1954). These restrictions tamed down comics to a point where it reinforced the idea that comics were only for children. Though the Code was updated to the times in 1971 and 1989, many publishers no longer follow the Code (Bors, 2004, p. 21). Without the Code, comic creators have more creative freedom to produce respectable works of literary merit and yet, the impact of Wertham s work and the Code on the perceptions of comics remains to this day. For example, according to Matthew Pustz most Americans view comic books with contempt, especially when read by adults. Adult fans and collectors are seen as geeks and worse. Reading material supposedly aimed at children is somehow seen as a sign of psychological maladjustment or arrested development (as cited in Versaci, 2007, p. 2). With these views in mind, it is difficult to establish comics in the library and classroom though recently comics have shown that they are more than disposable magazines. This paper will show that comics have attested to their potential as a serious medium deserving of recognition. Comics as Art and Literature In an attempt to assign literary merit to comics, they must be discussed in terms of their worth as art and literature. Comics as a medium take on many forms that emphasize works of aesthetic, literary, and historical value. Whether for cultural

8 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 8 appreciation, self education or recreational reading, comics embody an art unlike any other. Some of the more serious works in comics are done in the nonfiction and autobiography genre. Although comics appear to be an unlikely medium to recount factual events, Versaci (2007) states, the medium of comics is particularly suited to engage the reader in ways unavailable through conventional prose (p. 83). Through the use of a combination of illustrations and words, a more complete meaning can be achieved which in turn gives a larger picture to the limitations of prose or art alone. Difficult ideas can be better expressed when words alone fail to grasp a situation. A notable example of the medium of comics being used in nonfiction is Art Spiegelman s Maus. In Maus, Spiegelman tells the story of his father s experiences as a Jewish survivor of the Holocaust. Versaci (2007) notes that by taking full advantage of the graphic language of the comic book, Spiegelman creates a powerful new narrative model that recognizes the complexities of retelling this history (p. 83). Pieces of nonfiction such as the Holocaust can be difficult, even painful to learn. Spiegelman takes an approach which is able to portray the events his father went through without showing too many details. For instance, Vladek (Art s father), explains the transportation of people to Auschwitz and the treatment of young children by the Germans. Through two panels Spiegelman (1986) writes, Most they took were kids some only 2 or 3 years. Some kids were screaming and screaming. They couldn t stop. So the Germans swinged them by the legs against a wall and they never anymore screamed (p. 108). The first panel depicts Germans rounding up children shadowed in the background while in more detail

9 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 9 in the foreground a Jewish child screams as a German officer confronts them. The second panel shows a German soldier swinging a child against a brick wall. The borders of the panel cut off the top half of the child but instead show a splash effect on the wall. Without this combination of text and image, the full horror of the events could not have been portrayed without going into extensive graphic details, something that may cause a creator to lose their audience. Maus is an example of how graphic novels can be literature. Chute (2008) writes, Spiegelman aptly characterizes the graphic-narrative approach to style and form: articulating stories through the spatial aesthetics that the panels, grids, gutters, and tiers of comics offer (p. 457). Comics bring a distinctive perspective to nonfiction through the different techniques which are unique to the medium. Art and literature methods are blended to form new processes and ways to convey meaning. Furthermore, McCloud (1993) writes, Writing and drawing are seen as separate disciplines, writers and artists as separate breeds and good comics as those in which the combination of these very different forms of expression is thought to be harmonious (p. 47). Comics often employ an interdependent relationship between illustrations and text to create a deeper meaning. As Meskin (2009) puts it, comics are a hybrid art form that evolved from literature and a number of other art forms and media (p. 219). With that in mind, comics have a range which cannot be found in either visual arts or literature since they are often the embodiment of both. As with Maus, Spiegelman s story is not just a look into history but also an artistic expression of the emotional turmoil surrounding the Holocaust. An artist or writer can gain new forms of expression through comics.

10 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 10 Although comics may embody both literature and art, there are times when the two become separate entities in comics and yet still hold literary merit. Comics (or graphic novels) cannot be defined by their use of both text and images because of this occasional separation though it is this difference from other media which gives comics their unique character and establishes comics to be considered in their own right (Meskin, 2007). An example of the interplay and separation of literature and visual art can be found in Sin City by Frank Miller. The art in Sin City is characterized by black and white illustrations with a noir cinema feel. There are times when Miller uses no words at all in his panels or sometimes just sound mixed with images. He plays with interchanging the use of black and white shapes and lines. The result of these panels is of a dark world of images with a loud and detailed story without text boxes or speech bubbles. When Miller employs text to Sin City it is long and detailed full of gritty and exact words. As an example, the protagonist Marv in Sin City: the Hard Goodbye has been hit by a sledgehammer and he is falling into unconsciousness. This is an excerpt of some of his thoughts from the long text box, Then the broken bits start with their nagging. The jagged little bastards dance like leprechauns, pulling together in a bullies circle, laughing at me, telling me I m an even bigger loser than I ever thought I was (Miller, 2005, p. 96). The image accompanying these words is a simple illustration of Marv falling head down towards a circle of light. Miller uses simple lines and shapes to accompany his long detailed narration of emotions running through Marv. Frank Miller s narration could stand alone as much as many of his images. Yet as Arnott (2008) observes, Miller s graphic technique in Sin City challenges the

11 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 11 interplay between words and pictures so fundamental to sequential art (p. 380). Though Miller s story and art can often function independently, he finds a balance which enhances his narrative with a blending of art and literature techniques. The literary qualities of comics are apparent in many works like Sin City. According to Arnold (2007), Practically since their inception, comics have shown their ability to achieve powerful artistry through the inspired use of condensed, musical, and highly structured language (p. 12). Here, Arnold compares comics to the more respected form of literature, poetry (Arnold, 2007, p ). Poetic language can be seen in another of Frank Miller s (2002) works, Batman: The Dark Knight Returns, which when written in lines of verse, more clearly shows the rhythm and structure of the language: Gliding with ancient grace unwilling to retreat as his brothers did eyes gleaming, untouched by love or joy or sorrow breath hot with the taste of fallen foes the stench of dead things, damned things surely the fiercest survivor-- the purest warrior glaring, hating claiming me as his own. (p. 19) The bold font and ellipses are preserved to show the emphasis on words and rhythm. The panels describe Batman s encounter with a bat when he was a child but by the end of the last line, the reader begins to wonder whether the text is about a bat or something

12 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 12 more. The Dark Knight Returns is made up of descriptive language and double meanings much like what is found in poetry. Further attesting to the literary merit of comics, the traits that comprise a good work of literature are similar to the traits that identify a good graphic novel. Pagliaro (2014) analyzed eleven award winning graphic novels and came up with four common characteristics which identify a good graphic novel: detailed settings, form that functions, authentic dialogue, and expressive characters. He states, These characteristics all trend toward one central purpose: providing narrative information to the reader nonverbally (Pagliaro, 2014, p. 37). Though these characteristics sometimes refer to illustrations, they can be held against the most respected works in literature. Yet, the creator of a comic is also concerned with the balance and workability between text and images. This important difference separates comics from literature in such a way that comics may be studied and appreciated in their own right. Why Comics? Aside from appreciating comics as art and prose, libraries and classrooms need sufficient reasons for including comics in collections. The remainder of this paper will focus on why libraries and classrooms should include comics and the benefits of reading them. At the forefront of this argument lies the intellectual freedom of readers. According to Rubin (2010), Intellectual freedom is based on a fundamental belief that the health of a democratic society is maintained and improved when ideas can be created and disseminated without governmental, political or social impediment (p. 375). Providing access to comics maintains this intellectual freedom by promoting the circulation and exchange of ideas. When the Code was created in 1954, it violated

13 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 13 citizens intellectual freedom by restricting the creators freedom of expression and limiting the circulation of ideas. Since the nineteenth century, many librarians have believed that library collections should only include items that are in good character and wholesome. Much of this censorship in libraries and schools is based on the idea that the content could harm children. In addition, studies done in the 1960 s and 1970 s in high school and public libraries revealed that censorship occurred more often with materials that had pictures than with those that were not illustrated (Rubin, 2010, p ). The American Library Association (ALA) takes special interest in intellectual freedom by stating their stance on the issues. The ALA (1939,1996) created the Library Bill of Rights which states in the first policy: Books and other library resources should be provided for the interest, information, and enlightenment of all people of the community the library serves. Materials should not be excluded because of the origin, background, or views of those contributing to their creation. The policies in the Library Bill of Rights help create a framework for librarians to follow when making difficult decisions about selecting materials and censorship. The policies also justify a librarian s decision about a disputed work when upholding the standards of the ALA. With the above policy in mind, if the patrons of a library wish to have access to comics then those resources should not be excluded. Furthermore, the ALA issued a joint statement with the Association of American Publishers (AAP) called the Freedom to Read Statement which expresses the view that librarians and publishers have the responsibility to guard the freedom to read. The ALA

14 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 14 and AAP not only stand against censorship but also consider it harmful to a democratic society. The Freedom to Read Statement (2004) claims, The written word is the natural medium for the new idea and the untried voice from which come the original contributions to social growth (American Library Association & Association of American Publishers, 2004). Thus, like other books, the inclusion of comics in libraries and classrooms provides the opportunity for social growth and creative free rein. Additionally, comics have been shown to be beneficial in the use of education. Comics were first known to be used in education through their adaptations of classic literature and religious texts. According to Will Eisner (1974), By combining words and visual impact, the printed sequential story accomplished what it could do best: teach by conveying ideas quickly (p. 76). Later, during World War II, the Pentagon introduced instructional materials to soldiers in the form of comics in an attempt to help quickly train for war with the magazine, Army Motors. Since the program was successful, instructional comics were once again published with the outbreak of the Korean War, Army Motors became P.S. Magazine. These publications took technical jargon and images created an easy to understand format for the everyday person (Eisner, 1974, p ). In a similar manner, comics have been used to generate materials to promote public awareness. According to Eisner (1974), the U.S. Department of Labor funded the comic series, Job Scene, in 1967 which focused on providing job information to young people (p. 76). He states that it was proven so successful that several publishers now produce similar material (Eisner, 1974, p. 77).

15 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 15 More recently, positive results have been seen in public awareness through a study conducted by Kendra S. Albright and Karen Gavigan (2014). The study consisted of creating a comic for education and prevention about HIV/AIDS in South Carolina which has a high rate of infections. The goal was to create an increased awareness among participants about HIV/AIDS and to gauge the effectiveness of the graphic novel. The researchers took 40 participants from ages and had them answer a survey about their knowledge on HIV/AIDS. Then the participants read the graphic novel, again taking a survey about their understanding of HIV/AIDS afterward (Albright & Gavigan, 2014). The article by Albright and Gavigan (2014) states, Post-test survey results, however, indicated a significant decrease in the number of erroneous beliefs in a cure for HIV, and a significant increase in the number of correct answers (p. 182). Also, the researchers found that the graphic novel approach was a more enjoyable and easier to understand medium since the images helped the narrative along (Albright & Gavigan, 2014). Another use for comics in education is directly in the library and classroom. According to Eisner (1974), comics have been in use in school systems since 1948 (p. 77). Yet, comics involve a different kind of learning than traditional text based books. According to Jacobs (2007), Comics engage in what the New London Group of literacy scholars calls multimodality (p. 21). Multimodality is characterized by the combination of use of the other modes outlined by the New London Group which include: linguistic, audio, visual, spatial and gestural (Thomas, 2012, p. 71). Most comics engage multiple modes, they force the reader to slow down and examine the meaning of the images and text. Comic creators often play with the

16 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 16 different modes which can generate a new learning experience and a different way of examining literacy (Hammond, 2012). Jacobs (2007) writes, Images of people, objects, animals, and settings, word balloons, lettering, sound effects, and gutters all come together to form page layouts that work to create meaning in distinctive ways and in multiple realms of meaning making (p. 21). Here are some examples of how the different modes can be used in comics: the linguistic mode is characterized by the different uses of text such as vocabulary use and metaphor. The audio mode is shown with different sound effects and music drawn in as words or symbols. The visual mode uses color and perspective to create meaning. The spatial mode may include the use of space and organization of images and text. Lastly, the gestural mode may be portrayed through body language or implied movement (Thomas, 2012). All of these can be seen in the length of one comic, though may not all be included in every panel. Comics as a multimodal literacy help students learn to live in a multimodal world. With so much of the recent advents in technology working on a multimodal level (such as social networking, movies, video games, and cell phones), comics work as a means to help readers make sense of their everyday world (Hammond, 2012, p. 25). Furthermore, comics have the ability to help new and struggling readers through the accompaniment of images to help reinforce meanings while also breaking up text to guide the reader along (Pagliaro, 2014, p. 35). Pagliaro (2014) notes that, Struggling readers at home and abroad can benefit from educators who use graphic novels as a tool to increase engagement, comprehension, and visual literacy skills (p. 36). Also, graphic novels have been seen to help students who have difficulty transitioning from

17 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 17 picture books to text based books, creating a bridge to more advanced reading (Hammond, 2012, p. 25). Likewise, studies have shown that comics help deaf and hard of hearing students to gain reading comprehension (White, 2011). Deaf and hard of hearing students fall behind in reading comprehension and other subjects which according to White (2011), this may be from linguistic deficiencies or because many of the students rely mostly on American Sign Language (ASL) for communication (White, 2011, p. 21). ASL has no written component and students must first understand the context of the written words before comprehension can begin. Comics offer a way to scaffold text with supportive illustrations fostering a better grasp of reading for students with hearing loss (White, 2011). Now, it is important to note that although comics are often used to interest reluctant readers or bring students toward what some call more serious books, comics are a complex medium with their own set of advanced reading (Jacobs, 2007, p. 20). Today, comics are known to have more mature, serious storylines with the kind of depth that is seen in literature, sometimes more so. Using comics in libraries and classrooms to only motivate readers and bring them over to traditional texts, is missing out on many of the advantages that comics offer (Thomas, 2012, p. 70). Aside from supporting learning outcomes, librarians and teachers may choose to include comics for their value as a form of therapy. Comics often include difficult life situations which everyday people are facing such as death, substance abuse, bullying, social awkwardness, personal identity issues, and suicide. Readers can identify with the characters in comics and see them go through the same problems, showing them that

18 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 18 they are not alone. Comics may also serve as a way to motivate readers to persevere through life s challenges knowing that someone somewhere has gone through these same seemingly impossible situations (Gavigan, 2012; Mulholland, 2004). Similarly, reading fiction has been linked with greater empathy and social reasoning (Oatley, 2008). Comics as a medium are often fiction and like text based books, comics encourage the reader to take on the life of the protagonist. This process instills apathy in readers of fiction. Also, as Oatley (2008) puts it Just as computer simulations can help us get to grips with complex problems such as flying a plane or forecasting the weather, so novels, stories and dramas can help us understand the complexities of social life (p. 43). The stories which make up comics have the potential to help readers develop better social skills. All this aside, is it necessary for librarians and teachers to justify their choice to include comics in their collections? Meskin (2007) notes that: Those interested in comics suffer from a sort of aesthetic insecurity. Comics have not been taken seriously as art throughout most of the last 150 years, and those interested in the medium seem to feel need to provide an apology for their interests. (p. 374) As long as comics fit the same criteria for choosing text based books in terms of appropriateness, the medium of the book may not matter. Libraries exist to serve the people of a community and if there is a general interest in reading comics then they should be part of the collection. As Stan Lee says in a recent interview with American Libraries titled Newsmaker: Stan Lee (2014), A library should be a way for a child for anybody to get the sort of reading that he or she wants and hopefully that will

19 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 19 benefit them (p. 16). Whether beneficial or not, readers should be given the opportunity to access comics and judge for themselves. Conclusion The stigma of comics is still present though with the increase in the quality of comics and the positive attention of researchers, comics have gained recognition as a serious medium. Through such advances, librarians and teachers have the tools to justify decisions to include comics in their collections. The research could benefit from further study of the negative effects of comics on readers to create more of a balance to the present research. A lack of evidence cannot serve as a substitute for findings against the harm caused by comics which is needed to substantiate the positive results of the effects of comics on readers.

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21 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 21 Labio, C. (2011). What's in a name? The academic study of comics and the "graphic novel". Cinema Journal, 50(3), McCloud, S. (1993). Understanding comics: The invisible art. New York, NY: HarperPerennial. Meskin, A. (2007). Defining comics? Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 65, Meskin, A. (2009). Comics as literature? British Journal of Aesthetics, 49, Miller, F., & Janson, K. (2002). Batman: The dark knight returns. New York, N.Y.: DC Comics. Miller, F. (2005). Sin city: The hard goodbye (2nd ed.). Milwaukie, OR: Dark Horse Books. Mulholland, M. J. (2004). Comics as art therapy. Art Therapy, 21, doi: / Newsmaker: Stan Lee. (2014). American Libraries, 45(5), 16. Oatley, K. (2008). The science of fiction. New Scientist, 198(2662), Pagliaro, M. (2014). Is a picture worth a thousand words? Determining the criteria for graphic novels with literary merit. English Journal, 103(4), Rubin, R. E. (2010). Foundations of library and information science (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Neal-Schuman Publishers. Spiegelman, A. (1986). Maus: A survivor's tale. New York, NY: Pantheon Books. Subcommittee to Investigate Juvenile Delinquency. (1954). Juvenile delinquency (comic books): Hearings before the Subcommittee to Investigate Juvenile Delinquency of the Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 83 rd Cong., 2 nd Sess.

22 PERSPECTIVES ON COMICS 22 Retrieved from Thomas, G. (2012). Thinking inside the boxes: The importance of comics and graphic novels in visual arts education. Visual Arts Research, 38(1), Versaci, R. (2007). This book contains graphic language. New York, NY: The Continuum International Publishing Group. Wertham, F. (1954). Seduction of the innocent. New York, NY: Rinehart. Retrieved from White, B. (2011). The world in words & pictures: How graphic novels can help to increase reading comprehension for students with hearing loss. Knowledge Quest, 39(3),