Strategy training in the teaching of reading comprehension; Does it work for students whose first language is NOT English?

Transcription

1 Strategy training in the teaching of reading comprehension; Does it work for students whose first language is NOT English? Patareeya Wisaijorn Ubon Rajathanee University Abstract In recent years, strategy training in reading comprehension has become an important facet of literacy education. Research has suggested that effective reading strategies can be taught to students whose first language is English (L1 students). Is the same true for those whose first language is NOT English (L2 students)? This paper researches the effects of strategy training in small group situations in a university setting with a class of Thai English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students. Although the study shows an improvement in the students reading comprehension performances and a positive reaction to the benefits of strategy training, it raises a number of cultural questions for the Thai context that may be significant in other settings. Introduction In the Thai educational and professional contexts, the development of English skills in young people is an important component in their preparation for effective roles in twenty-first century society. School students are exposed to English language education in the primary and secondary years, and English is a compulsory subject for all first year undergraduate students in Thai universities. The ability to use English well is crucial at Thai universities as many text and electronic materials are in English. Post-graduate students require a reasonable capacity in English and those wishing to pursue studies in English-speaking institutions are required to show an advanced proficiency as a prerequisite for admission to the institutions. Thais with good skills in English enjoy considerable advantages in professional situations due to their ability to communicate effectively with their international peers. Despite this recognition of the value of English in Thailand, some educational institutions experience major obstacles to achieving acceptable standards of teaching and learning and good results in this area. In a number of situations, the approach to teaching is teachercentred and involves little creativity or active participation (Chareonwongsak, 2002). This often leads to a lack of interest and interaction on the students part (Chandavimol, 1998). Estimates of many

2 Thai graduates English proficiency are in the modest user category (band 5 prone to many errors, but able to cope with simple communication in their own area) on the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) scale (Fredrickson, 2003, 1). Some are in the limited user category (band 4 many problems in comprehension and expression, and not able to use advanced language). Marukatat and Bunnag (2003) cited a Thai university study that found Thai students: ranked next to last. on average TOEFL scores collected over four years among nine of the 10 Asean member states Thai students were outperformed by their Burmese, Vietnamese and Cambodian peers (6). Reading competently in English is especially important to Thai students due to the large amount of course texts, references and internet material that appears in that language. In the EFL context, literature suggested that one best way to learn English, other than living among its speakers, is to read extensively in it (Nuttall, 1996: 128) and that reading is the most important source of language learning (Alderson, 1984; Grabe, 1993). Dubin and Bycina (1991) stated that academic reading or reading for the purpose of learning has become one of the most important methodological topics in the field of teaching English to speakers of other languages (195). Despite this recognition of the importance of reading, many Thai university students show poor reading skills in English. Adunyarittigun (1998) found that weak performances in reading in English indicate difficulties in fulfilling the demands of their studies. Addressing this problem of poor reading ability among Thai students poses extra difficulties for Thailand as access to libraries is restricted compared to other countries (for example, Singapore), and it does not have a strong reading culture, as indicated by its ratio of newspapers to population (1 to 31) compared to Japan s 1 to 6 (Marukatat, 2003; Raising Bookworms, 2004). This situation is reflected in poor performances in reading proficiency when compared to 30 developed Organisation for Economic Cooperation (OECD) member countries and 15 partners including Thailand ( Thai Test Results Just Don t Add Up, 2004). It is, therefore, important for Thai teachers of English to search for effective, globally-proven teaching and learning methods to improve their

3 students abitlity to read in English that fit comfortably with the cultural and educational contexts and the students backgrounds. Reciprocal Teaching Procedure (RTP) and related research in different contexts In recent years, strategy training in reading comprehension has become highly recognized in literacy education. One strategy training technique of Palincsar and Brown (1984) shown to be successful in the development of reading comprehension of low ability first language (L1) students is the Reciprocal Teaching Procedure (RTP). RTP involves explicit instruction by the teacher in the students use of the strategies, such as predicting, clarifying, questioning and summarizing, to develop their reading comprehension. As the students become more familiar with the use of the strategies, the teacher plays a less prominent role and the students develop the ability to work co-operatively with their peers. More recent research in L1 contexts, outlined by Oczkus (2004), has also shown it to be effective with students of different ages and abilities operating in a variety of teaching and learning situations. In English as a Second Language (ESL) settings, Casanave (1988) and Miller and Perkins (1990) found RTP to be a successful method of improving reading comprehension for second language (L2) readers. Miller and Perkins (1990) added that they believed RTP stimulated L2 students awareness of the rights and roles of individuals, group and teacher in the learning process. In a small-scale study involving four adult ESL students in a pre-university English proficiency course, Cotterall (1990) discovered positive reactions to detailed explanations about the use of strategies of RTP and a resultant improvement in reading ability. In an EFL context, Hasan (1994) reported the better reading performances of students exposed to RTP compared to those using traditional methods at Kuwait University. The researcher added that RTP not only improves reading comprehension but also offers students the opportunity to use English to serve many of the language functions and notions that are typical of the communicative approach. In a Thai setting, Adunyarittigun (1998) found that there were no differences between the reading performances of Thai students in an experimental RTP group and in a control regular EFL group. This result is at odds with the other researchers findings, but may be explained by the fact that Palincsar and Brown (1984; 1986) found that RTP was most beneficial to readers who were good decoders but poor in comprehension skills. The Thai participants were weak in both decoding and comprehension

4 (Adunyarittigun, 1998). Lack of strong skills in English may have required them to spend much time in decoding and translating texts into their first language, thus limiting their time on comprehension development. Cotterall (1990), Hasan (1994) and Adunyarittigun (1998) all worked with RTP in different ESL/EFL settings. Each found that RTP assisted the development of their students in different ways, whether it contributed by offering increased opportunities for discussion, improvement in reading ability or a supportive environment. Also, each of them made the call for more research in the use of RTP for EFL populations of different languages, ages and abilities. RTP appears to help students develop their reading ability in both L1 and L2 settings. While the volume of research conducted in L1 contexts is vast, the amount in EFL situations is relatively small. A number of factors related to RTP use in some of these situations require further investigation. This study aimed to explore the impact of RTP on reading development in an EFL situation, based in an educational environment dominated by teacher direction, relatively poor standards of reading ability and limited cultural exposure to reading. Methodology Purpose The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of RTP on the reading comprehension of a group of Thai university students and their responses to this approach to teaching and learning. Participants The participants were fifty-three first year EFL students at a university in North Eastern Thailand. Research instruments The research instruments used in the study included: 1. Pre- and post-tests a. a pre-test, the Nelson Denny Reading Test (NDRT) form G, to assess reading performances before the teaching sessions b. a post-test, NDRT form H, to assess reading performances after the teaching sessions

5 2. Pre- and post-questionnaires a. a pre-questionnaire to collect information on the students background in EFL b. a post-questionnaire to record students responses to RTP and to features of the teaching sessions, the model lesson and the class organization 3. Teacher s journal to record comments about the sessions and the students performances Procedure Over the duration of the study, seven ninety minute sessions based on RTP techniques were presented by an experienced EFL teacher. Two sessions were devoted to explanations of the strategies of predicting, clarifying, questioning and summarizing, to practical application of their use, and to the development of group work skills. The teacher presented one session as a model to illustrate both the instructional procedure and the group process. The remaining four sessions each involved analysis of a text by the students in randomly assigned groups of six using the following step approach: survey of the title and sub-headings of the text to activate background knowledge and to make predictions before reading silent reading of the first paragraph of the text by the students in their groups discussion of the paragraph led by the group leader, focussing on clarification of difficulties, questions, summary of main ideas and predictions about the following paragraph written recording of any difficulties, predictions and/or questions silent reading of the next and subsequent paragraphs with discussions led by a new group leader for each paragraph. Data Analysis The quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed in the following ways: 1. Pre- and post-tests. The average scores for the pre- and post-tests and the standard deviations were calculated. The scores were compared to reveal any changes in performances in reading comprehension between the pre- and post-tests. 2. Pre- and post-questionnaires. Students completed written responses before and after the implementation of the RTP sessions. The pre-

6 questionnaire related to information about the students general and EFL backgrounds. The post-questionnaire recorded the students attitudes to reading, the sessions and the development of skills by RTP. The responses were read and collated, and note was made of frequently occurring answers. 3. Teacher s journal. The teacher maintained a written journal throughout the study. This recorded comments about the sessions and the students performances. It was closely read at the conclusion of the sessions and notes made of its contents. Results and Discussion 1. Pre- and post-tests The NDRT forms G and H were administered as the pre- and post-tests respectively to assess the effects on the students reading comprehension ability. Comparison of the results of the pre- and post-tests showed a marked improvement in the students reading comprehension. The average scores in the pre- and post-tests were and respectively (see Appendix Table 1 and Table 2). The results indicated a significant increase in the students reading comprehension between the administration of the pre- and post-tests, despite the fact that the students worked with a teaching and learning method with which they were initially unfamiliar. 2. Pre- and post-questionnaires The pre-questionnaire was administered to provide information about the students general and EFL backgrounds. The ages of the fifty-three participants (thirty females and twenty-three males) in the study ranged from eighteen to twenty-four. They had between six and fifteen years of English education. The post-questionnaire collected information related to the students attitudes to reading and to RTP as an effective means of developing this skill. Fifty-two students completed it. Most of them had not been exposed to a teaching technique similar to RTP previously, and all commented that they believed it was beneficial to their reading in EFL and other subject areas. The training sessions and model lesson were considered to be important in the study, especially as most students were not familiar with RTP. Group size (six) was acceptable to the students and the teacher, and allowed adequate teacher assistance and peer interaction.

7 The responses to the pre- and post-questionnaires revealed: a) A conservative self-evaluation of ability b) Reading as a solitary activity understanding as a social activity c) Recognition of the importance of reading in English d) Recognition of the problems and value of different ways of teaching and learning a) A conservative self-evaluation of ability - Generally, the students evaluated their abilities in reading comprehension and English vocabulary knowledge conservatively (see Appendix Table 3). Only one student (1.9%) thought his ability was very good in each category. Thirty-four students (64.2%) considered their reading comprehension to be average. Twenty-seven (50.9%) believed their English vocabulary knowledge was average. This conservative assessment was even more marked when one notes that another nineteen students (35.9%) believed they had poor ability in English vocabulary knowledge, a total of forty-six students (86.8%) who placed themselves in these two categories. Such conservative self-evaluation is probably in accord with the general nature of Thai students. Open displays of competence and confidence, even by talented students, are unusual in Thai schools and universities, and it is reasonable to assume that their doubts about their ability are likely to be more pronounced when they are working in a second language. b) Reading as a solitary activity understanding as a social activity - The majority of the Thai students in this study regarded the process of reading English texts as one that they undertook usually on their own (see Appendix Table 4). Twenty-three of them (43.4%) seldom and seven of them (13.2%) never read with friends. However, many were prepared to discuss their reading with others, with six (11.3%) always and fifteen (28.3%) often talking about what they had read. These findings suggest that the Thai students read as a solitary activity but sought for understanding of their reading socially with others. Such an approach may suit Thai students who are conservative in the selfevaluation of their ability in English (see above). They may be more comfortable struggling with the reading on their own. Then, having completed this process, they are prepared to test their understanding in

8 the forum of discussion with others, seeking confirmation of and/or assistance with their interpretations of the texts. This social approach to the process of reading was clearly evident when the Thai students experienced difficulties (see Appendix Table 5). When they were unable to understand or uncertain about what they had read, the students showed an overwhelming preparedness to consult with teachers and/or friends. None of the students never asked their friends and/or teachers for explanation or assistance in times of difficulties. Again, such an approach involving consultation with others sits comfortably with the Thai students conservative self-evaluation mentioned above. If one is not confident about one s ability in an area, then it is reasonable to assume that assistance will be eagerly sought from others in attempts to understand. c) Recognition of the importance of reading in English Most of the students recognized the importance of the contribution of good English reading skills to their academic success. As a result, students were positive towards RTP as an attempt to improve their English reading skills, despite their unfamiliarity with its methods and approach. Once they had established an awareness of the technique, they were able to work effectively on developing strategy skills and understanding the texts. Most recognized that they needed teacher assistance to develop their reading ability. When reading in English, the students placed a strong emphasis on translation into Thai and the use of dictionaries to understand texts. There was little use of guessing from context and analyzing word structure and function to assist comprehension. d) Recognition of the problems and value of different ways of teaching and learning RTP represents a challenge for Thai students. It places expectations on them of approaching texts by predicting, questioning, clarifying and summarizing, very often in a group context, working with their peers without the immediate direction of a teacher. Such a teaching and learning environment is not one that is part of the established classroom culture of Thai schools and universities. Generally, this culture is based on a teacher s position as a highly respected person with superior knowledge whose role is one of imparting this knowledge to the students (Jones, 1999). This is usually done in a class of often in excess of fifty students! The respectful attitude and the large class sizes do little to

9 encourage student-teacher and/or student-student dialogue, an important feature of RTP. In many traditional Thai classroom contexts, there is a significant emphasis on rote learning, involving all students doing the same work, irrespective of abilities, interests and/or needs. This style of teaching and learning stressed whole class activities with repetition and memorization of facts, not necessarily understanding. There have been considerable efforts to change this approach in the training of language teachers and in other subject areas, with varying degrees of success. Understanding and confidence in the use of the strategies, not just a memorization of them, is a critical factor in RTP, allowing the students to adapt and employ their abilities in a range of situations as appropriate. There remains a tendency for Thai education, especially in primary and secondary schools, to be teacher-centred and teacher-directed, with infrequent use of alternative frameworks for teaching and learning, such as group work, discussions, individual research and/or cross-class work. This tendency may be due to the position of respect and superiority that the teacher experiences and may also be considered as a necessity because of the demands of managing large class sizes, heavy teaching loads and considerable administrative duties. RTP is not, in its regular form, teacher-centred nor teacher-directed. It is driven by the abilities and needs of the students, and depends upon their skills in handling the texts in group situations. As a result of these features of Thai education, students may find it difficult to develop skills in creative thinking, independent and alternative learning, questioning and/or discussion. The pressure to conform is powerful: The Thai education system does not facilitate an individual s thinking ability, but focuses on rote learning. Submissive students who do not ask questions are seen as well behaved. In contrast, students who are creative, critical and analytical and who reason with their teachers are often viewed as aggressive and disobedient, and have trouble fitting into the Thai education system. (Chareonwongsak, 2002, 4) The structural framework of this study involved RTP using small groups developing the strategies of predicting, questioning, clarifying and summarizing. Such an approach represents a departure from the whole

10 class teacher-directed structure of traditional Thai classrooms. The students in the study were required to develop and use their skills, and apply them to the texts in a group situation. Their initial lack of expertise in being able to use these skills was probably due to their unfamiliarity with them, and also the fact that they were expected to direct themselves within their groups without close teacher supervision. Despite the training sessions and model lesson, fifteen students (28.8%) reported that they were not aware of their roles in the group context. This made initial efforts at comprehension of the texts difficult as students did not know their duties not only were they grappling with the texts in a foreign language, but they were also having to learn to play new roles in the teaching and learning situation. This indicates a cultural problem that proponents of RTP in EFL settings have to confront. Not only do EFL students need to develop skills in using strategies and an approach that may be very unfamiliar to them, they also require assistance in becoming acquainted with the dynamics of a new teaching and learning environment. The problem of a Thai student organizing and directing group discussions, making decisions about different interpretations and/or handling differences of opinions, may be a greater obstacle to teaching and learning than overcoming a reluctance to question, seeking clarification, and/or making a prediction about a text in English. The early difficulties experienced by some students in the training session and the model lesson, due to their lack of awareness of their roles in the group context, illustrated the need to prepare carefully and to proceed slowly. Initially, the groups were led by a teacher, but, as the strategy and group skills matured, the teacher played a less dominant role, acting as a facilitator instead of a director. This framework appeared to suit the Thai students who were happy to work independently on their reading, but recognized the value of the teacher and welcomed the assistance of their peers and teacher when difficulties were experienced. Comments by students, teacher and researcher indicated that increased student awareness of their duties in the group situation led to enhanced confidence in their performance. The students remarked that they welcomed the recognition that they received when they performed their group duties correctly.

11 The group work aspect of RTP is an important factor in students working in a foreign language where they are much more vulnerable to criticism and negative evaluations than in other subjects because their chances of making mistakes in the language class are much greater (Tsui, 1996, 156). The demands of comprehending a text in a foreign language enhances the collaborative nature of the students in the group, encouraging them to assist each other at a rate that suits all members of the group, irrespective of ability (Moore, 1988). With less capable students who may be experiencing anxiety and lack of confidence in the L2 setting, this supportive atmosphere may be even more significant. Tsui (1996) found anxious students: more willing to speak up not only because group discussions give students a chance to rehearse their thoughts to each other in a low-risk, high-gain situation, but also because they feel they have the support of their peers (163). 3. Teacher s journal The teacher found that RTP allowed students to develop a systematic approach to reading that assisted their solution of difficulties with comprehension. The group played a significant role in the teaching and learning process by providing help with clarification and understanding for individuals and the group generally. Despite the time-consuming demands of preparation and implementation involved in RTP, the teacher considered it to be a valuable teaching technique as it provided the students with opportunities to take responsibility for their own learning. Instead of the teacher being the presenter of knowledge, RTP encourages the student to be an independent learner and a discoverer of knowledge, with the teacher as a facilitator. Conclusion Reading in English may be a special problem for Thai students as the country does not possess a strong reading ethic, even in its own language. Because of this, it is unlikely that students have reading models, a factor that may have a significant impact on the students if the teachers themselves are not seen to be readers (Eskey & Grabe, 1995). While Thailand does not have a strong reading culture, some consider dialogue to be the country s powerful and effective means of

12 communication. Chareonwongsak (2002) commented that Thais...prefer listening and speaking cultures. (4). RTP may have much to offer Thailand as reciprocal teaching has been designed to be dialogic (Palincsar, 1986, 95). To use Thais strengths, their listening and speaking, may be an effective way of assisting some of their weaknesses in reading comprehension. The structure of RTP, based on students discussing meanings of texts in small group contexts, using skills that they are constantly developing and adapting to suit the situations, could lend itself to a culturally-appropriate way in which Thais can improve their English expertise. This paper has outlined a study that took a method of strategy training, RTP, shown to be successful with L1 students, and investigated its effects on L2 students in an EFL setting in which the teacher traditionally directed activities, reading ability was not strong and reading was not a popular cultural pastime. Improvements in performance in reading comprehension tests were attained over the period of the study and students and teacher made positive comments about the benefits of the teaching and learning process. However, a number of cultural factors were noted that need to be considered to allow Thai students to fully realize their potential in English language and academic study. These cultural traits, while not insurmountable, pose significant obstacles to teaching and learning in EFL specifically and education generally if not considered by the educator. Approaches that are culturally sensitive and recognize the strengths and weaknesses of students from all backgrounds will assist students to develop skills in their English language and in other academic areas. References Adunyarittigun, D. (1998). The effects of the reciprocal teaching procedure on Thai EFL students reading performance and selfperception as readers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Maryland. Alderson, C. (1984). Assessing reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Casanave, C. (1988). Comprehension monitoring in ESL readings: A neglected essential. TESOL Quarterly, 22(2), Chandavimol, M. (1998). Reading comprehension: An active engagement or a passive experience? PASAA, 28(December), Chareonwongsak, K. (2002, July 7). Ten dimensions for new Thai thinking skills. Bangkok Post, 4.

13 Cotterall, S. (1990). Developing reading strategies through small-group interaction. RELC Journal, 21(2), Dubin, F. & Bycina, D. (1991). Academic reading and the ESL/EFL teachers. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (pp ). New York: Newbury House. Eskey, D. & Grabe, W (1995). Interactive models for second language reading: Perspectives on instruction. In P. Carrell, J. Devine & D. Devine, (Eds.), Interactive approaches to second language reading (pp ). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Frederickson, T. (2003, June 24). Crossing that final hurdle. Bangkok Post (learning post), 1. Grabe, W. (1993). Current developments in second language reading research. In S. Silberstein (Ed.), State of the art: TESOL essays. Illinois: TESOL, Inc. Hasan, B. (1994). The effects of the reciprocal teaching of comprehension strategies on the reading abilities of EFL students at Kuwait University. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Colorado. Jones, J. (1999). From silence to talk: Cross cultural ideas on students participation in academic group discussion. English for Specific Purposes, 18(3), Marukatat, S. (2003, June 18). Read all about it: If you can. Bangkok Post, 10. Marukatat, S. & Bunnag, S. (2003, May 28). Region can learn from Thailand? Bangkok Post, 6. Miller, L. & Perkins, K. (1990). ESL reading comprehension instruction. RELC Journal, 21 (1), Moore, P. (1988). Reciprocal teaching and reading comprehension: A review. Journal of Research in Reading, 11(1), Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. Oxford: Heinemann. Oczkus, L. (2004). Reciprocal teaching at work: Strategies for improving reading comprehension. Newark: International Reading Association. Palincsar, A. (1986). The role of dialogue in providing scaffolded instruction. Educational Psychologist, 21(1 & 2), Palincsar, A. & Brown, A. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1, Raising bookworms (2004, September 13). Bangkok Post, The Magazine.

14 Thai Test Results Just Don t Add Up (2004, December 21). Bangkok Post, 10. Tsui, A. (1996). Reticence and anxiety in second language learning. In K. Bailey & D. Nunan (Eds.), Voices from the language classroom (pp ). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Appendix Table 1: Average scores obtained by students in reading comprehension pre- and post-tests (NDRT forms G and H) Test number average s.d. Pre- NDRT form G Post- NDRT form H The t-test indicated a significant difference between the average scores of students before and after the period of instruction at p<0.05. Table 2: Average scores obtained by students in reading comprehension pre- and post-tests (NDRT forms G and H): paired samples test Test pre- and post-tests (NDRT forms G and H) p<0.05 numbe r averag e diff. s.d. diff. t- value sig (2- tailed) * Table 3: Self-evaluation of ability in reading comprehension and English vocabulary knowledge: frequency (%) Skills poor average good very good Total reading c. 7 (13.2) 34 (64.2) 11 (20.7) 1 (1.9) 53 (100) Vocabulary 19 (35.9) 27 (50.9) 6 (11.3) 1 (1.9) 53 (100) Table 4: Preferred learning style in reading: frequency (%) Learning style tota l I prefer to read with friends I talk about what I have read with other people 2 (3.8) 6 (11.3 ) 9 (17) 12 (22.6) 15 (28.3) 18 (34) 23 (43.4) 14 (26.4) 7 (13.2 ) (note: 5 = always; 4 = often; 3 = sometimes; 2 = seldom; 1 = never)

15 Table 5: Social learning style with reading difficulties: frequency (%) Learning style tota l If I don t understand a text, I ask my teacher or friends to explain the text If I am not certain of a text, I check my understanding with my teacher or friends 11 (20.8) 11 (20.8) 24 (45.3) 21 (39.6) 11 (20.8) 13 (24.5) 7 (13.2 ) 8 (15.1 ) (note: 5 = always; 4 = often; 3 = sometimes; 2 = seldom; 1 = never) About the Author Patareeya Wisaijorn is an assistant professor in TESOL in the Faculty of Liberal Arts at Ubon Rajathanee University, Thailand. She has extensive experience of teaching English as a foreign language and teacher education. Her research interests are in learner autonomy and the teaching of reading. Acknowledgments I would like to express my appreciation to Professor Mary Lee Field, Professor Richard R. Day, and my colleague, Bob Tremayne, for their valuable comments on this article.