THE LAB. Estimated Garbage Disposal in Canada Individual (1 person) Average Family (3.1 people)*

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1 INDOOR & OUTDOOR COMOPSTING Turning Organic Wastes into Garden Gold Composting is nature s way of recycling nutrients and organic matter back into the soil for use by new growing plants (Cullen and Johnson, 1994). By preparing and applying compost to our vegetable garden, flowerbeds and yards, we strengthen our soil and nourish the living matter around us that sustains human life. Why Composting is Important By composting in our back yards, or on our balconies, even in our basements each of us can do something to alleviate the burden of our wasteful habits (Cullen and Johnson, 1994). On average, each Canadian disposes 1.7 kg (kilograms) of garbage per day of which 25 to 30 percent is organic household waste that could be composted (Cullen and Johnson, 1994; Ministry of the Environment PIBS 665B). Those of us who compost organic materials will significantly help reduce the finite amount of land required for waste disposal in the future. Because 222 kg of waste occupies 1 square metre of space, many urban municipalities have or will soon run out of lands designated for garbage disposal. The following table illustrates how our current rate of disposing garbage can really add up when applied to an average family, a large city in Ontario, and across Canada. Estimated Garbage Disposal in Canada Individual (1 person) Average Family (3.1 people)* City of Toronto (2,481,494 people)* Canada (30,007,094 people)* Daily (kg) ,218, ,012,059.8 Weekly (kg) ,529, ,084,418.6 Monthly (kg) ,243, ,550,766,617.9 Yearly (kg) , ,539,767, ,619,401,827.0 * Data from Statistics Canada (2001 Census Profile) Compostable Materials A properly prepared compost pile contains relatively equal portions of brown carbonaceous materials that give the compost pile mass and enhance aeration and green nitrogenous materials that encourage microorganisms to reproduce. The following pictures are intended to illustrate the difference between brown and green compostable materials, while the following guide will help you learn what specific materials can and can t be composted. Brown Carbonaceous Materials Green Nitrogenous Materials Page 1

2 Compostable Materials (add equal parts) Non-Compostable Materials Browns (carbon-rich, dry) Greens (nitrogen-rich, wet) Do Not Compost Fall leaves and plants Straw or Hay (exclude seeds) Pine Needles (not too many) Twigs (width of your thumb) Newspaper (small shreds) Eggshells (crushed) Wood Chips (not too many) Sawdust (not pressure treated) Corncobs (small pieces) Wood Fireplace Ashes Fresh leaves or plants Kitchen scraps (fruits & veggies) Coffee grounds / tea bags Green grass (thin layers only) Weeds (before seeds have set) Seaweed (only small amounts) Flowers Freshly pruned trimmings Manure /farm animal bedding Pet Wastes Charcoal or coal ashes Meats, bones or fats Dairy products Oil or oily foods Diseased or infested plants Diapers / sanitary products Non-shredded woody yard waste Crab grass How the Composting Process Works The actual work of composting is done by a whole team of decomposter organisms. This team includes microscopic organisms such as bacteria and fungi, actinomycetes, protozoa, as well as larger decomposer organisms such as mites, millipedes, centipedes, sow bugs, springtails, and earthworms. Bacteria and fungi start the composting process by feeding off of the organic matter in the pile. They break down tissues of the organic matter, using carbon as a source of energy and available nitrogens to build proteins in their bodies. There are two types of bacteria: aerobic, which require oxygen to decompose organic material, and anaerobic which decompose organic material in the absence of oxygen. To enable aerobic bacteria to multiply and thrive within your compost pile, it is essential to ensure that sufficient oxygen reaches the center of the pile. You may wish to build the sides of your bin out of wire mesh, perforate holes in a container you intend to use as a compost bin, or place a perforated pipe vertically or horizontally through the middle of your compost pile. Because anaerobic composting is incredibly smelly and does not produce enough heat to destroy any pathogens or weed seeds that may exist within the compost pile, this method is not recommended for your backyard, balcony or basement. In order to function properly, decomposter organisms require a pile to have between 40 and 60 percent moisture. Compost piles with insufficient moisture will work very slowly while those with too much moisture will result in an environment that only anaerobic bacteria can survive. The heap should generally be as moist as a wrung-out sponge for those of you who don t have the proper equipment to measure the moisture content of your compost pile. Heat is normally produced within an outdoor compost pile by aerobic bacteria breaking down organic materials into simpler forms. As the temperature rises inside a compost pile, the bacteria producing the heat die off and create an environment for another type of bacteria that can thrive in hotter temperatures. There are three primary types of bacteria that typically exist in a compost pile at different times. Psychrophilic bacteria start decomposing organic materials in your pile and are most active around 13 degrees Celsius (55 degrees Fahrenheit), while mesophilic bacteria succeed psychophillic bacteria by working at temperatures between 8 and 50 degrees Celsius (46 to120 degrees Fahrenheit). Thermophilic bacteria (sometimes referred to as the hot shots of a compost pile) function at temperatures between 50 and 90 degrees Celsius (120 to 194 degrees Fahrenheit) and will keep decomposing materials until it either gets too hot for them to survive or until they have consumed all of the degradable materials in the pile. A single gram of wet compost at 70 degrees Celsius (158 degrees F) is believed to contain more than one billion bacteria and 10 million fungi (Cullen and Johnson, 1994). You may wish to take the Page 2

3 temperature of your pile at regular intervals to determine what types of bacteria are living in your compost. Although it may be difficult to reach the thermophilic stage with a small compost pile, it is necessary to achieve temperatures above 60 degrees Celsius (140 degrees Fahrenheit) in order to destroy potentially harmful pathogens and undesireable weed seeds that may exist in your compost pile. However, it is not necessary to achieve these temperatures to produce finished compost. Spring, fall and summer are ideal times to compost, whereas freezing winter temperatures are not conducive for bacteria that decompose organic matter. Once most of the bacteria in your pile have died off, larger organisms such as earthworms and ants will begin to inhabit your heap. These organisms indicate that your compost pile contains mature, finished humus that is full of microorganisms and is ready to be harvested for your garden. OUTDOOR COMPOSTING METHODS Although compost can be made outdoors using a variety of different methods, this paper will focus primarily on above ground bins, boxes, garbage cans, and piles. What method you choose for composting will depend on a number of factors, including space, access to organic materials, desired return, physical ability, aesthetics, etc. If you want to produce a small amount of compost in a limited area with minimum effort, you may wish to choose a commercially available container of bin. If you have plenty of space and want as much finished compost as possible, however, you may wish to use a multi-stage composting unit. A variety of outdoor composting systems are illustrated below. Open heap with perforated ventilation pipe Modified trash can with large drilled holes Commercial plastic bin usually black in colour Wire mesh bin anchored with metal rods Multi stage unit constructed of wood and heavy wire screen (may include front gates and top) Detailed plans for constructing a multi-stage composting unit can be found on-line care of the Seattle Tilth Association at Page 3

4 The 14-Day Compost Method THE LAB Although the following composting method is labour intensive, it yields a considerable amount of finished compost in much less time than most other methods. However, you must have all materials ready for composting at once and have adequate room in your yard for turning the compost pile several times over a two-week period. You can choose to make the compost in an unenclosed heap or in a commercial or homemade bin, but the dimensions of a compost pile in a suburban yard should be between 1m x 1m x 1m and 1.5m x 1.5m x 1.5m. Save your kitchen scraps in a lidded container, separating them with layers of non-treated sawdust. Do not add additional kitchen scraps to the pile once the composting process begins and be sure that all of the materials used in your pile are less than 2.5 centimetres (1 inch) in diameter. If desired, you can reduce the size of the materials with hand pruning shears, a weed trimmer, lawnmower, or wood chipper (following proper safety precautions and with assistance from an adult if necessary). The following information provides step-by-step instruction for building a compost heap that could yield finished humus in only 14 days. 1. Find a level, well drained area of land in your yard that receives equal amounts of sun and shade. 2. Start with a 5 to 7cm base layer of broken twigs or plant stalks to allow air to reach the bottom of the compost pile. 3. Then add a 5 cm layer of leaves, followed by a 5 to 10 cm layer of grass clippings, a 2.5 cm layer of shredded food scraps, a 2.5 to 5 cm layer of previously composted soil or livestock manure, and finally a 5 to 10 cm layer of carbon rich materials such as shredded leaves, straw and/or sawdust. Be sure to add water to the layers of carbon rich materials if they appear dry. 4. Repeat step 3 until the pile is between 1 and 1.5 metres high, wide and deep. If you make the pile any larger without introducing an air vent into the centre of the pile, your pile may produce anaerobic bacteria and give off an unpleasant odour. 5. If all of the conditions are right, the centre of the pile should reach a temperature of approximately 54 degrees Celsius (130 degrees Fahrenheit) in about three days. At this time, turn your pile over with a garden fork or shovel, creating a new pile adjacent to the original one. Chop through the layers while you try to mix the outer materials into the centre of the pile. Wait three days between turning the pile. After turning the pile about three times, you may not be able to recognize the original materials you added to the pile. Turn the pile every three days for approximately two weeks. The finished compost should have a temperature of less than 43 degrees Celsius (11 degrees Fahrenheit) and be approximately half the volume of the original compost pile. Shredded Leaves Soil / Manure Kitchen Wastes Grass Clippings Shredded Leaves Soil / Manure Kitchen Wastes Grass Clippings Twigs & Stalks Compost Pile Profile / Section Page 4

5 Although covering the top of the pile with a layer of soil may mask a slightly unpleasant odour, you may need to disassemble your pile and go back to Step 3 to adjust your carbon to nitrogen ratio if your compost pile doesn t heat up properly and/or gives off an unbearable odour. Add more nitrogen rich material (or reduce carbon rich material) to make your pile heat up, and more carbon rich material (or reduce nitrogen rich material) if your pile already has too much green matter and gives off an unpleasant odour. Harvesting Finished Compost Finished compost also known as humus should be dark brown in colour, have a crumbly, loose structure and an earth like smell. Most of the original materials should not be recognizable, except for resistant materials such as twigs, fruit pits or seeds, eggshells, etc. Simply separate most of these materials from your finished compost before applying the finished compost to your garden, flowerbeds, potted plants or lawn. Finished compost that will not be used for some time should be covered with a plastic sheet or an old tarpaulin to prevent it from being dried out by direct sunlight or to prevent rain from leaching out valuable nutrients. Applying Finished Compost The best times to apply your compost are during the spring and fall. Only mature compost should be added to your garden in the spring, whereas compost added to your garden in the fall can be partially composted. In the spring, when the ground is warm enough to work with a digging fork or shovel, initially turn your beds to a desired depth, breaking up any clumps of earth and rake level. Uniformly apply between 1 and 2 cm of finished compost over the entire surface of your garden and lightly work it into the soil at a depth of 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inches) with a shovel or digging fork. The same amount of compost should be applied in the fall and either worked into the soil at a similar depth or left as mulch to finish composting over winter. If you wish to fertilize a tree, simply apply a thin layer of compost around the entire tree in the area between the trunk and drip line of the tree. You can also apply finished compost to bare patches on your lawn where you would like to plant grass seed. Keep a bucket of finished compost in your garage or cellar during winter to start seeds indoors or transplant potted plants. Benefits of Compost as a Natural Fertilizer Unlike concentrated chemical fertilizers that easily can burn plant roots when applied excessively, you can never add too much finished compost because the ph is much more neutral and nutrients are released much more slowly. Adding compost to soil over time will improve the soil s texture, moisture and heat retention capacity, as well as store nutrients and prevent erosion. Page 5

6 INDOOR COMPOSTING METHODS Vermicomposting (composting organic wastes using worms) This is a very efficient method of composting kitchen scraps that can be done indoors year round as well as outdoors during summer months. Because vermicomposting requires little space, it is ideal for people who wish to compost in an apartment, at an office, or even at school. Vermicomposting may also appeal to homeowners who want to continue to produce compost during winter months when freezing temperatures render their outdoor compost pile inactive. Unfortunately, this method is generally not suitable for composting large garden wastes. Wooden Vermicomposting Bin Vermicomposting works by placing worms in a bin or container that has been prepared with a layer of natural bedding. Bringing organic material into your house may present concerns for some because it may contain bugs. The following guide will help you select a vermicomposting bin that is the right size for the number of people in your household. People per Household Amount of worms to begin in Bin Recommended Bin Size lb. 1 x 1.5 x 2 ft lb. 1 x 2 x 2 ft lbs. 1 x 2 x 3.5 ft. Although commercial vermicomposting bins made of plastic can be purchased, it is possible to make a bin out of ½ inch plywood, 2x4 inch beams, and galvanized screws and hinges. If you plan to make a box you will need a power saw and a drill. The box will require about twenty 3/8 holes drilled into the bottom of the wooden box for the worms to receive oxygen. Detailed plans on how to construct a vermicomposting bin can be found on the Seattle Tilth Association website at Kitchen wastes are simply added to your composing bin as they become available and are then dug into the bedding with a small gardening spade or shovel. Worms immediately begin to consume the organic material and some worms will actually eat their own body weight in food each day. Under proper conditions, the worms will continue to reproduce, but their population will eventually stabilize depending on the size of your bin and how much food is introduced. Be sure not to feed your worms too much food or your bin may start to smell. As a general rule of thumb, two pounds of worms can generally handle 1 lb of food per day. Not enough food will cause your worm population to decline to a point where they will not be able to consume as much food as they once did until they have enough time and food to repopulate. Worms Worms are a great sign of healthy soil. They improve soil by aerating and introducing oxygen into the soil by tunnelling. Their underground tunnels support productive root growth of plants and improve moisture retention in soil. Worms also convert organic matter into valuable nutrients for plants, introduce surface litter into the soil and enhance microbial activity. Page 6

7 All worms respire by absorbing oxygen through the surface of their bodies and require fairly moist living environments. They eat organic matter such as plants, protozoa s, rotifers, nematodes, bacteria, fungi, decomposing remains of other animals, and bits of soil. Bodily waste produced by worms, commonly known as castings are full of nutrients. Castings are an excellent conditioner for soil. Selecting Worms Do not use regular earthworms from your garden when selecting worms for vermicomposting. Instead, the following worm varieties are recommended for vermicomposting because of their ability to rapidly decompose material, survive a range of household temperatures, thrive in a dense environment, and reproduce in captivity. They can normally be purchased at bait stores or gardening centres or even given to you by a friend who vermicomposts and already has a healthy worm population. Manure Worm or Redworm (Eisenia foetida), also known as the red wiggler African Nightcrawler (Endrilus eugeniae) To provide a suitable living environment for your worms, you should place your vermicomposting bin in a relatively warm area, away from pets and potential flooding. Some suitable places for vermicomposting bins include lower cupboards, or under stairs and tables. Do not store them in a heated attic, a greenhouse or on a deck in direct sunlight. If you keep your vermicomposting bin outdoors for part of the year, be sure to bring it indoors before the temperature drops below 5 degrees Celsius (40 degrees Fahrenheit). Worm Feeding Guide What to Feed Worms What NOT to Feed Worms Vegetable Scraps chopped finely Bones To accelerate consumption of Tea bags and loose tea Fish food wastes by worms, puree Coffee grounds Meat your food scraps in a blender Pulverized egg shells Butter with a little water and pour the contents into the bin. Also, dry out your egg shells and crush Fruit and fruit rinds, chopped Bread and baked goods, chopped Rice and grains Cheese Very oily food Yard waste them in paper bag with a rolling Nuts, chopped pin or with a mortar and pestle. Pasta, chopped Orange peels take a long time to decompose unless they are cut into small pieces. Preparing the Bin Contents 1. Layer 7 to 10 cm of bedding into bin until it is approximately ½ full. The bedding can be mixtures of shredded leaves and soil; moistened peat moss and straw or newspaper or corrugated cardboard that has been pre soaked. 2. Then add a 5 cm layer of organic litter (soil, dead leaves, straw, peat moss). 3. Sprinkle or spray water on the bedding until it is about as damp as a wrung out sponge. 4. Introduce kitchen scraps beneath the layer of bedding, choosing different areas each day. 5. Place your worms onto the layer of organic litter described in Step Cover the bin with a lid, sheet of dark plastic, etc. to shield the worms from external light until you add more kitchen wastes. Page 7

8 If your pile begins to dry out and you intend to use tap water, let it sit for 24 hours before adding it to your materials to allow any chlorine to evaporate, as worms are sensitive to this chemical and others. Harvesting Finished Vermicompost Under proper conditions, you may be able to harvest finished vermicompost from your bin in several months. When ready, you should notice a drop in the level of material in your compost bin, have difficulty recognizing the original bedding material, and find worm castings that resemble small black pellets throughout the bedding material. Although there are numerous ways to harvest your compost, the following two methods are relatively simple and straightforward. The One-Step Harvesting Method Expose the inside of the bin to light and let the worms dig down before carefully scooping out the finished compost into a container with a small shovel. Temporarily place any worms and residual vegetable scraps onto a nearby sheet of plastic. Have new bedding material handy before beginning the harvesting process. When all of the finished compost has been harvested, prepare new bedding in the bin and return the worms and any residual food scraps to the bin as quickly as possible to prevent your worms from drying out. Do not expose your worms to direct sunlight during this process and be sure to mist them if you think they are drying out while you harvest your vermicompost. The Back-and-Forth Harvesting Method Once your original bedding is no longer recognizable, move it along with all the worms to one side of the compost bin. Add new bedding and food scraps to the empty side and wait for all of the worms to migrate to this new material. Within approximately two weeks, the finished vermicompost should be mostly free of worms. Simply scoop out the finished compost into a container, replacing any remaining worms to the newest bedding material. Evenly distribute the bedding material throughout the bin and repeat this process when your vermicompost is ready to be harvested again. During the harvesting process, you can safely take away half of your worms to start another vermicomposting bin or give/trade/sell them to someone else who wants to try vermicomposting. Your worm population will soon return to the size it once was as long as you continue to properly feed and keep them. Troubleshooting Tips Depending on how much fruit wastes are put into your vermicomposting bin, fruit flies may begin to be a problem. If so, you may wish to try one or more of the following options: (1) bury food waste into the bedding (rather than placing it on top) and sprinkle a bit of compost over it; (2) chop then freeze all fruit wastes for several days before thawing it in the fridge and adding it to the vermicomposting bin; (3) make a fruit fly trap (more information on this can be found in a book entitled the Urban/Suburban Composter by Cullen & Johnston, 1994 see Bibliography). If you notice an unpleasant odour coming from your vermicompost bin, stop feeding your worms for a few days until the smell subsides, then resume proper feeding (possibly in smaller amounts). Alternatively, you may wish to reduce acidity (likely caused by citrus and tomatoes) by adding alkaline material such as powdered eggshells into the bin. Page 8

9 Grey Mould or Fuzz may appear on the surface of your bin due to over feeding. This problem can be rectified by opening/removing the bin s lid to let the mould dry out and by not feeding the bin for approximately one week. Because some moulds may not be easily detectable, you may not wish to vermicompost indoors if you or members of your family are sensitive to moulds. Using Finished Vermicompost Vermicompost may be combined with potting soil, added to your houseplants, garden and lawn. If you want to use the nutrients from your vermicompost as a liquid fertilizer, simply mix 1 part worm castings and 3 parts water, let stand overnight, then stir and water your plants with this form of compost tea. Indoor Composting Experiments for Children & Youth Many educators believe teaching children about composting and environmental ethics can have long lasting and far-reaching implications. Those who would like to experiment with vermicomopsting can: 1. Construct vermicomposting bins. 2. Weigh the amount of food wastes that are placed into a vermicompositng bin over a week, a month or even an entire school year. 3. Count the number of worms each time you harvest your compost to study how a worm population may increase, peak and stabilize. 4. Monitor the different rates at which foods break down in the bin. 5. Research worm biology and soil ecology. 6. Compare plant growth rates and plant health that have had worm compost added to their pots, as opposed to plants that have not had any worm compost added to their pots. To those who are not interested in worms or dirty hands, the following composting experiment may be more appealing. Micro Compost Piles The following experiment will allow you to actually observe the composting process on a daily, weekly and monthly basis. 1. Get a large pickle jar (restaurant size). 2. Layer handfuls of moist leaves, soil, shredded kitchen scraps, leaves, grass clippings, and soil (much like the layers of organic material in an outdoor compost pile) until the jar is full. 3. Insert a small bundle of twigs deep into the centre of the material to provide a ventilation stack. To test the effects of different environmental conditions on composting, make several identical micro compost piles and place them in different locations throughout your classroom or house, making sure that the different locations offer different conditions (sunny, shady, warm, cool). You may wish to observe and record the different rates of decomposition in every jar on a weekly basis and present the results to your class after several months. Page 9

10 BIBLIOGRAPHY & FURTHER READING THE LAB Ball, Jeff Easy Composting: Environmentally Friendly Gardening. San Ramon CA. Ortho Books. ISBN Campbell, Stu Let It Rot: The Gardeners Guide to Composting. Updated and Revised Edition. Storey Communications Inc. ISBN Cullen, Mark and Johnson, Lorraine The Urban Suburban Composter. New York, NY. St. Martins Press. ISBN Martin, Deborah L. and Gershuny, Grace (Editors) The Rodale Book of Composting: Easy Methods for Every Gardener. Pennsylvania, USA. Rodale Press Inc. ISBN Ministry of the Environment. Choose Nature s Way: Compost. Government of Ontario. Public Information Centre. PIBS 665B Seattle Tilth Association. A Note About the Author Jason Rokosh was born in the Niagara Region of Southern Ontario where he developed a special interest in horticulture and agriculture while working on farms, in greenhouses and at tree nurseries. His passion for environmental issues led him to live on an organic farm in British Columbia where he was exposed to a wide variety of composting methods and acquire a Bachelors Degree in Design (Environmental Planning) from the Nova Scotia College of Art & Design and a Masters Degree in Landscape Architecture from the University of Guelph. Jason currently produces enough compost each year to sustain a healthy garden, which he and his wife Julia thoroughly enjoy while residing in the City of London, Ontario. Page 10

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