Chapter 1. The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

Transcription

1 Important Terms and concepts Chapter 1. The Rise of Nationalism in Europe 1. Nationalism: A sense of belonging to one nation. Feeling of pride and patriotism towards the country one belongs to 2. Absolutist: unrestricted, despotic and authoritarian often refers to a centralized repressive monarchical government. 3. Utopian: An ideal situation, a vision too good to be realized in practice. 4. Nation-state: A state having a common and contiguous boundary with inhabitants/people sharing common language, race and religion. Majority of its citizens develop a sense of common identity and share a common history ruled by a strong government. 5. Plebiscite: A direct vote by which the people of a region, themselves decide to accept or reject a proposal. 6. Sovereignty: Supreme power. 7. Monarchy: From of government headed by a monarch or a hereditary or dynastic ruler. 8. The Estates General: Referred to the French parliament-an elected body which was renamed as the National Assembly after the Revolution of Civil Code: A systematic set if laws for the citizens. 10. Habsburg Empire: the Empire that rules Austria-Hungary including the Alpine region of Tyrol, Austria, Sudetenland as well as Bohemia. It also included Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia. 11. Liberalism: Derived from the Latin word liber meaning free. The idea of liberalism stands for freedom of individual and equality of all before law. Politically, it refers to representative government. 12. Suffrage: The right to vote. 13. Elle: Elle was used to measure cloth, prevalent in German states. 14. Zollverein: A customs union, formed in 1834 in Prussia to remove barriers of trade. 15. Conservatism: A spirit or philosophy which believes in maintaining and preserving traditional values and institutions. It prefers gradual change to quick and drastic change. 16. Carbonari: A secret society of Italy-consisting of young revolutionaries. 17. Young Italy: A secret society founded by Mazzini at Marseilles for organizing revolutionary activities. 18. Ottoman Empire: turkish Empire ruled by the caliph-the spiritual and temporal head of the Muslims. 19. Romanticism: A cultural movement which aimed at developing a particular form of national sentiment and promote a feeling of collective heritage as the basis of the nation. 20. Das Volk: A German word meaning common people. 21. Republic: A State where the head of the state is elected and does not hold a hereditary position. 22. Feminist: People who advocate women s rights on the basis of equality of sexes. 23. Ideology: System of ideas reflecting a particular social and political vision. 24. Allegory: Symbol representing an abstract idea; an idea identified through a person or a thing. 25. Balkan region: A region in Europe with geographical and ethnic variation. The region covers the states of modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro. The inhabitants of the region are knows as the Slavs. 26. Jacobins: A French political group who contested election after the French Revolution. 27. Junkers: Large landowners of Prussia.

2 Multiple choice Question 1. Who, among the following, hosted the congress at Vienna in 1815? (AI 2012) (a) King of Netherlands (b) Giuseppe Mazzini (c) Duke Metternich (d) Otto Von Bismarck 2. Which among of the following is true about the Treaty of Constantinople in 1832? (AI 2012) (a) It recognized turkey as an independent nation. (b) It recognized Greece as an independent nation. (c) It recognized Germany as an independent nation. (d) It recognized France as an independent nation. 3. Who among the following formed the secret society called Young Italy? (Delhi 2012) (a) Otto Von Bismarck (b) Giuseppe Mazzini (c) Metternich (d) Johann Gottfried Herder Who among the following took power in the Southern part of Vietnam after the division of the country? (Delhi 2012) (a) Ngo Dinh Diem (b) Ho Chi Minh (c) Bao Dai (d) NLF 4. Which one of the following types of government was functioning in France before the revolution of 1789? (a) Dictatorship (b) Military (c) Body of French Citizen (d) Monarchy OR

3 OR Who among the following known as Colons? (Delhi 2012) (a) French citizen living in Vietnam (b) French citizen living in France (c) Educated people of Vietnam (d) Elites of Vietnam 5. Which one of the following statement is false regarding the Act of Union 1707? (Delhi 2011) (a) It was an agreement between England and Scotland (b) It was an agreement between England and Ireland (c) It resulted in formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain (d) It gave England control over Scotland 6. Which one of the following states was ruled by an Italian princely house before unification of Italy? (AI 2011) (a) Kingdom of Two sicilies (b) Lombardy (c) Venetia (d) Sardinia-Piedmont 7. Which one of the following is not true about Giuseppe Mazzini? (Foreign 2011) (a) He wanted a united Italian Republic (b) He found an underground society called young Italy (c) He wanted Italy to be a monarchy (d) He was excited for attempting revolution in Liguria 8. Who said when France sneezes the rest of Europe catches cold? (a) Garibaldi (b) Mazzini (c) Metternich

4 (d) Bismarck 9. Which treaty recognized Greece as an independent nation? (a) Treaty of Versailles (b) Treaty of Vienna (c) Treaty of Constantinople (d) Treaty of Lausanne 10. Who was responsible for the unification of Germany? (a) Bismarck (b) Cavour (c) Mazzini (d) Garibaldi 11. Which area was known as the powder keg of Europe? (a) Germany (b) Italy (c) Balkans (d) Ottoman Empire 12. Elle, the measuring unit in Germany was used to measure (a) Cloth (b) Thread (c) Land (d) Height 13. Zolleverine started in 1834 in Prussia refers to a (a) Trade union (b) Customs union (c) Labor Union (d) Farmer s Union 14. The Ottoman Empire was ruled by the emperor of (a) Turkey (b) Russia (c) Britain (d) Prussia 15. At which of the following places was the Frankfurt Assembly convened (a) At the church of St. Paul

5 (b) At the church of St. peters (c) At the palace of Prussia (d) At the hall of Mirrors in the palace Versailles 16. What did the crown of oak leaves symbolize? (a) Courage (b) Heroism (c) Peace (d) Tolerance 17. By which of the following treaties was the united kingdom of Great Britain formed? (a) Treaty of Versailles (b) Act of Union (c) Treaty of Paris (d) Treaty of Vienna 18. Who was Wolfe tone? (a) A French revolutionary (b) An iris catholic who revolted against the British dominance (c) A German rebel who revolted against Kaiser William IV (d) A British Protestant Leader 19. Which of the following best explain Utopian Society? (a) A society where everybody is equal (b) A democratic society (c) An idealistic society which can never be achieved (d) A society with a comprehensive constitution 20. After the French revolution 1789, the right to vote given to (a) All adult population of the country (b) All property owing male citizen of the country (c) All property owing male and woman of the country (d) All adults excluding woman of the country 21. The main function of the Zolleverin was to (a) Impose custom duty and imported goods (b) Abolish tariff barriers (c) Reduce custom duties (d) Imposed new rules for trade 22. Which of the following groups of powers collectively defeated napoleon? (a) England, France, Italy, Russia

6 (b) England, Austria, Spain, Russia (c) Austria, Prussia, Russia, Britain (d) Britain, Prussia, Russia, Italy 23. Which of the following countries is considered as the Cradle of Civilization? (a) England (b) France (c) Greece (d) Russia 24. The treaty of Vienna signed in 1815 (a) Brought to conservative regimes back to power. (b) Destroyed the conservative powers of Europe. (c) Introduced democracy in Austria and Prussia. (d) Set up a new parliament in Austria. 25. Romanticism refers to (a) Cultural movement (b) Religious movement (c) Political movement (d) Literary movement 26. In Prussia, who were referred as Junkers? (a) Military official (b) Large land owners (c) Factory owners (d) Aristocratic nobles 27. Which of the following is an allegory/ attributes for liberty? (a) Crown of oak (b) Red cap (c) Olive branch (d) Sword 28. What does a blind folded woman carrying a pair of weighing scales symbolize? (a) Peace (b) Equality (c) Justice (d) Liberty 29. Who among the following was proclaimed the first king of united Italy? (a) Nicholas II

7 (b) King George II (c) Wilhelm IV (d) Victor Emmanuel II 30. A nation state is the state where (a) People of all groups enjoy equal right (b) Where the nation has its own emblem and flag (c) A state which have a contiguous territory (d) A state where people live in a common territory, develop a sense of identity and share a common history 31. Most important outcome of the French revolution of 1789 was (a) Abolition of absolute monarchy (b) Making of new constitution (c) Transfer of sovereignty from monarch to the French citizens (d) Formation of the nation assembly 32. Identify and mark the incorrect response, The Napoleonic code (a) Did away with all the privileges based on Birth and established Equality (b) Destroyed feudalism in France (c) Formulated codes for army (d) Ensured right to property for the privileged class 33. A large number of people hostile to the Napoleonic code because (a) It was not suitable for all (b) It destroyed the special privileges of the rulers (c) Administrative changes did not go hand in hand with political freedom (d) None of the above 34. for the middle class of Europe, the most important features of Liberalism was (a) Abolition of conservatism (b) Right to the liberal and educated (c) Individual freedom and equality before law (d) Representative government 35. Why did the Frankfurt parliament fail to achieve its goal? (a) Women were excluded from the membership (b) Did not have the support of the peasants (c) Kaiser William refused to accept the crown and opposed the assembly (d) None of the above. Short Answer Type Question (3 marks)

8 1. Describe the process of unification of Italy. (AI 2012) 2. Describe any four measures which were introduced by the French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity among the people. (AI 2012) 3. Describe the process of unification of Germany. (Delhi 2012) OR Describe the infrastructural projects developed by the French colonists in Vietnam. (Delhi 2012) 4. Explain any three beliefs of the conservatism that emerged after (Delhi 2012) 5. Explain any four economic hardships that Europe face in the 1830s. (Delhi 2011) 6. Describe any three reforms introduced by napoleon in the territories he conquered. (Delhi 2011) 7. Explain any three ways in which nationalist feeling kept alive in Poland in the 18 th and 19 th centuries. (AI 2011) 8. Explain any three causes of conflict in the Balkan areas after (AI 2011) 9. Explain the contribution of Giuseppe Mazzini in spreading revolutionary ideas in Europe. (AI 2011) 10. Explain any three points, how Ireland was incorporated in to the United Kingdom in (Foreign 2011) 11. Explain any four changes brought about in Europe by the Treaty of Vienna (1815). (Foreign 2011) 12. Explain any three features of the Nation State that emerged in Europe in the 20 th century. (Foreign 2011) 13. Explain the significance of portraying nations as female figures by the European artists in 18 th and 19 th centuries. (Foreign 2010) 14. Explain any three features of Napoleonic Code. (Delhi 2010) 15. Explain any three measures introduced by French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. (Delhi 2010) 16. Explain the concept of liberalism. What did it politically emphasized during 19 th century in Europe. (Delhi 2010) 17. How did romanticism seek to develop a particular form nationalist sentiments during 18 th century? Explain. (Delhi 2009) 18. Explain any three features of the class of landed aristocracy of Europe. (Delhi 2009) 19. Examine the role of the woman in the nationalist struggle of Europe. 20. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed? 21. What are the political, social, and economic ideals supported by the liberals? 22. Choose three examples to show the contribution to the growth of nationalism in Europe. 23. What are the main symbol of the independent nation? 24. How the growth of industrialization did changes the social and political equation of Europe? 25. Which social group spearheaded nationalist movement in Europe? What was its main demand? 26. How did liberalization rise the growth of nationalism? 27. Who was Metternich? What was his role in congress of Vienna? 28. Examine the effect of revolutionary upheaval in France in 1830? 29. How was Ireland incorporated in United Kingdom? Long Answer Type Question (5 marks)

9 1. Napoleon had no doubt destroyed democracy in France, but in the administrative field he had incorporated revolutionary principles in order to make whole system more rational and efficient. Support the statement. (Delhi 2012) 2. Explain the revolutionary reform incorporated by the napoleon in France and in his conquered territories. (AI 2009C) 3. How did culture play an important role in creating the idea of the nation in Europe? Explain with four example. (Delhi 2008) 4. When did the first clear-cut expression of nationalism come in France? How did the French revolution lead to the transfer of sovereignty from the monarchy to a body of French citizens? Explain any four measures taken by the French revolutionaries in this regard. (AI 2008) 5. Explain liberalism in political and economic fields prevailing in the Europe in 19 th centuries. (AI 2008) 6. How was the formation of the nation state the result of a long drawn out process in Britain? Explain. 7. How was the Habsburg Empire a patchwork of many different regions and people in Europe? Explain. 8. Why did nationalist tension emerge in the Balkans? 9. Write a note on the following- I. Giuseppe Mazzini II. Count Camillo de Cavour III. The Greek war of independent IV. Frankfurt parliament 10. How did the French revolutionary idea spread to other countries? 11. Why was the napoleon rules over the other region unpopular with some sections of people? 12. Examine the events leading to the formation of the French republic in 1848? 13. Who was Garibaldi? Examine his contribution in the unification of Italy. 14. Explain the most important achievements of the French revolution of The Habsburg Empire that ruled over Austria-Hungry was a patchwork of many different regions and people. Explain. 16. What was indicated by Metternich s comment- if France sneezes, rest of Europe catches cold? 17. Critically examines the significance of the Frankfurt parliament (1848). Why did it fail? 18. How was the history of the development of nationalism in England different from rest of the Europe? 19. Examine the role of the Prussia in German unification. Do you agree with the statement that Prussian conservatives were able to generate nationalism by promoting state power and achieving political domination over Europe? Value Based Question

10 1. Name three values of a nation, as understood by the Renan. As his value important in present time? 2. Give two different views about liberty and equality for women in 19 th century. How has India given equality to women? 3. Let us ask how many men, possessed by the thoughts of living and dying for the sake of liberty, would be prepared to fight for the freedom of the entire people of all human beings? When asked this question, they will all too easily respond with a yes!, though their untiring efforts are intended for the benefit of only one half of humanity- men. (a) What does entire people mean and what do they enjoy? (b) What values do you learn from the above extract? 4. In 1867, Giuseppe Garibaldi led an army of volunteers to Rome to fight the last obstacle to the unification of Italy, the papal state, where a French garrison was stationed. It was only in 1870 when during the war with Prussia, France withdrew her troops from Rome and the papal state were finally joined to Italy. (a) What was the desire of Giuseppe Garibaldi? (b) What values do you learn from this extract? ANSWER Multiple Choice Question 1. C 12.A 23.C 34.C 2. B 13.B 24.A 35.C 3. B or A 14. A 25.A 4. D or A 15.D 26.B 5. B 16.B 27.B 6. D 17.B 28.C 7. C 18.B 29.D 8. C 19.C 30.D 9. C 20.B 31.C 10. A 21.B 32.C 11. C 22.C 33.C Short Answer Type Questions 1. (I) Mazzini was a great revolutionary leader of Italy. He inspired the youth with Ideas of establishing a single unified Italy. (II) He set up secret societies like young Italy in Marseille and young Europe in Berne with like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy and German statics. (III) He felt that Italy could not continue to be an art work of small state and kingdom. It had to be forged in to a single unified republic within wider alliance of nation. (IV) He felt that unification alone could be the basis of Italian liberty.

11 (V) Mazzini prepared the ground for Cavour to complete the process of unification. 2. (I) from the very beginning the French revolutionaries introduced various measure and practice that could create a sense of collective identity among the French people. (II) The idea of a father land (La Patrie) and citizen (Le Citoyen) emphasized the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution. (III) A new French flag, the tricolor was chosen to replace the tricolor. (IV) The state general was renamed as the national assembly. (V) New Hymns were composed, oaths taken and martyrs commemorated in the name of nation. 3. First attempt was made in 1848 towards the setting up of a constitutional monarchy uniting German state by convening parliament at Frankfurt. The failure of this assembly made it clear that the German unification at to cone through a combined effort of monarchy and military supported by large land owners. From 1848, Prussia under Otto von Bismarck took the leadership of the movement of unification fought and won three wars, with Austria, Denmark, and France and completed the process of unification. The French colonizers adopted various infrastructural project to make more project. OR I. Ensured regular supply of natural resources and other necessary goods. II. They began to dig canals and drained lands in Mekong delta to increase cultivation. The vest system of irrigation work, canals and earth works build, increased rice production and allowed the export of rice in international market. III. Construction of Tran s indo-china rail network linked northern Vietnam with southern part. 4. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 European governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism. Conservatives believed that: I. Established traditional institutions of state and society (like monarchy, church, social, hierarchy, property and family) should be preserved. II. Most conservatives believed that they should not to the society of pre-revolutionary days. III. The modernization could in fact strengthen traditional institution like monarchy (as seen from changes initiated by napoleon). They believed that in fact it could make the state power more effective and strong.

12 IV. That a modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy and abolition of feudalism and serfdom could actually strengthen the autocratic monarchies Europe. 5. The 1830s were the years of Great Depression. The people of Europe too faced great economic hardships in the 1830s in the following ways: I. In the first half of the 19 th century there was enormous increase in population in Europe resulting in large scale unemployment. There were more job seekers than job providers. There was large scale migration of people from rural areas to overcrowded cities and slums. Life became hard. II. Small producer of goods from home and small workshops that were only partly mechanized in the European town faced stiff competition from the cheap machine made goods of England were industrialization had been established, especially in the area of textiles. III. Peasants were burdened with feudal dues and obligations in regions where Europe enjoyed power. IV. In years of bad harvest the price of food rose and the hardship faced by people was great and often lead to pauperism. 6. The reforms introduced by Napoleon in the territories that came under him were mainly administrative ones and in accordance with the civil code of 1804, better known as Napoleonic code. In region under French control, Dutch republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany he introduced the following changes: I. Firstly he abolished all privileges based on birth or enjoyed as birthright and thus established equality before the law as well as secured the right to property for all. II. Next he simplified the administrative division, abolished the feudal system and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues. III. Thereafter in towns he removed guild restriction so that merchants and traders could carry out their businesses freely and new entrepreneurs could enter the businesses. IV. He improved the transportation and communication system. V. Finally the introduced uniform laws for all, standardized weights and measures and introduced common national currencies which facilitated movement an exchange of goods and capital investment from one region to another. 7. Poland had been partitioned in the end of 18 th centuries by the great powers- Russia, Prussia, and Austria and was losing national identity did not exist as an independent state. Under such circumstances in order to keep alive their nationalist feelings the polish people use their culture in a big way. I. They used music to keep their unity and identity Karol kurpiniski kept up the national struggle by staging his polish operas and music. II. The polish people used dance like polonaise and mazurka making them into nationalist symbol. III. In the region of Russian occupied Poland, the polish language was replace by Russian language in schools and Russian language was imposed everywhere. As a rebellious act, the polish used their own

13 language to develop nationalist feeling. Language was also used as a weapon of national resistance in church gathering, religious instructions, even though large number of priests and bishops were put in jail or sent to Siberia as punishment. IV.The use of polish came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance. In 1831, there was a polish armed rebellion against Russian rule but the rebellion was crushed. (Any Three) 8. The Balkans comprised of modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia- Hercegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro and a large part of this region was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. This was a region of great geographical and ethnic variation and its inhabitants were known as Slavs. Some of the reasons that made this region very explosive and caused conflict are: I. The feelings of nationalism of these countries was in conflict with one another. They were fiercely jealous to each other and struggle to define their identity. They were extremely intolerant of one another. II. The disintegration of Ottoman Empire which had throughout the 19 th centuries tried to strengthen itself through modernization and reforms. III. The breaking away of each of these nationalist group one by one from control of the ottoman empire and declaring themselves as an independent with political rights on the basis of the history. They proved that once they had been independent but were subsequently subjugated. IV. Each of these counties attempted to gain more territory to their independent country. V. The Balkans became a scene of big power of rivalry. Major European power- Russia, Germany. England. Austro-Hungary, manipulatednatinalist aspirants to further their own aims. There was a rivalry between the European powers over trade and colonies and naval and military superiority. VI. There was a rivalry among the big powers to counter the hold of other powers over the Balkan region and extending their own control. 9. Giuseppe Mazzini was revolutionary committed to fight for liberty and freedom. He opposed monarchy and had vision of democratic republic which frightened the conservatives. He was a member of the secret society of the carbonari. He was sent to exile in 1831 when he was only 24 years of age for attempting the revolution in Liguria. Thereafter he founded two more underground secret societies: I. Young Italy in Marseilles and II. Young Europe in Berne. The members of the society is like minded young men from Poland, France, Italy, and the German state. Mazzini was convinced that Italy could not continue to exist as a patchwork of small states and kingdom. Italy has to be joined into one unified republic nation with alliances with other nations. He spread

14 revolutionaries ideas to fight for liberty and freedom. He believed that god had intended all nation to be natural units of mankind and that unification is only means to obtain liberty for Italy. Metternich described Mazzini as the most Dangerous enemy of the social order. 10. Ireland was a county that has its own ethnic culture and tradition. However the people deeply divided over religion, catholic, and Protestants. I.The English supported the protestant and helped them to establish their dominance over the country that was largely catholic. II.The Catholics revolted against the British dominance but were systematically suppressed. In 1798, the united Irishmen led by Wolfe tone revolted but failed. III. After this failed revolt Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in Napoleon was defeated in 1815 by collective European powers- Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria. The representatives of European powers drew up the treaty of Vienna at a congress hosted by Austrian chancellor Duke Metternich with the objective of undoing the changes that had come about the Europe during the Napoleonic wars. I. The bourbon dynasty that was destroyed during the French revolution was restored. II. French lost the territories it has annexed under Napoleon. III. A series of state were set up on the boundaries of France to prevent French expansion in future. IV. Netherlands which included Belgium was set up in the north. V. Genoa was added to piedmont in the south. VI. Prussia was given important new territories on its western frontiers. VII. Austria was given control of northern Italy. VIII. The german confederation of 39 states set up by Napoleon was left untouched. IX. Russia was given part of Poland. X. Prussia was given part of Saxony. 12. The nation states of 20 th century wanted to give their nations an identity. They did this in the following manners: I. Nations were personified i.e., they represented their nations as a person with certain characteristics that identified their nation. II. Nations were portrayed as a female figure with certain qualities but it did not represent any real or particular woman. III. Artists personified France s Marianne and Germany personified their counties as Germania. These figures sought to give abstract ideas of a nation into a concrete form. IV. Ideals were represented by objects,

15 (a) A red cap or a broken chain stood for liberty. (b) A blindfolded woman carrying a pair of scales came to represent justice. 13. I. Since it is difficult to comprehend abstract ideas as nation, the 18 th and 19 th century artists personified nation as female figure. II. The figure was not the image of any person in life but a female figure having its own attributes, which came to become an allegory representing a nation. III. For example Marianne, which represented French nation had attributes of liberty such as broken chain, red cap, etc. Similarly Germania was imagined as the allegory of german nation, a female figure wearing a crown of oak leaves which represented heroism. 14. Three features of Napoleonic code- I. after becoming the emperor napoleon introduced a civil code usually known as the Napoleon code. II. It did away with all the privileges based on birth. III. It established equality before law and secured the right to property. The code was extended to the regions under French control. 15. Three measures introduced by French revolutionaries to create sense of collective identity amongst the French people- I. The idea of the father land (La patrie) and the citizens (le citizen) emphasized a notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution. II. A new French flag, the tricolor was chosen to replace the former royal standard. III. The estates general was elected by the active citizens and renamed as the national assembly. IV. New hymns were composed, oaths taken and the martyrs commemorated in the name of the nations. 16. I. The term liberalism derived from the Latin word liber meaning free. II. For the new middle class it stood for the freedom of individual and equality for all before law. III. Politically, it emphasized the concept of government by consent. In 18 th century Europe, national unity was closely connected with the ideology of liberalism- since French revolution liberalism had stood for the end of the autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution and a representative government. V. the 19 th century also stressed inviolability of private property.

16 17. I. Romanticism refers to a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of national sentiment. II. Romantic artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of reason and science, and focused on emotion, intuition, and mystical feeling. III. Their effort was to create a sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural part, as the basis of nation. Some german romantics believed that through folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances, the true feeling of the nations can be popularized. German culture was to be discovered among the people. 18. Socially and politically, the landed aristocracy was the dominant class of Europe, united by a common way of life that cut across the regional divisions. I. They owned estates in countryside and also town houses, II. They spoke French in the purpose of diplomacy and high society, III. Their families often connected by ties of marriage. 19. I. A large number of woman has participated in the liberal and national movement in European countries. II. Woman formed their own political association, founded newspaper and took parts in political meetings and demonstration. III. However, they still denied to right to vote and could not enter the Frankfurt Parliament (1848) as representatives but attended only as observers. 20. I. Marianne and Germania were the allegories of the nation in France and Germany. II. These are female figure symbolizing or personifying the nation. Germania is depicted as wearing crown of oak leaves symbolizing heroism and holding a sword in one hand and flag in other hand. III. Similarly, Marianna in France hold a torch in the right hand a book in the left hand representing enlightenment and freedom respectively. 21. I. The liberals supported important political, social and economic ideas politically, it emphasized the concept of representatives government based on the consent of the people. Liberalism also stood for the end of the autocracy and clerical privileges encourage supremacy of the people which was upheld by the constitution. II. Socially it emphasized equality for all before law and individual freedom. III. In economic sphere it stood for the freedom of market and abolition of state imposed restriction on the movement of goods removal of tariff and barriers etc.

17 22. Culture of the people plays a significant role in strengthening nationalist feelings, I. The idea of the nations can be created through the stories, poems, paintings, music, often helped in shaping and expressing the nationalist feelings. II. Romanticism, a cultural movement in Europe made effort to create a sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural past as the basis of a nation. III. Folk culture such as folk dance, folk songs, folk poetry displays the true spirit of the nation and unities common people. Pride in folk culture and promotion on vernacular language help in nation building. 23. The main symbol of the independent nation are- I. The national flag II. The national anthem III. The national language IV. The national seal Every country is identified through these symbols which are distinct for others. 24. I. Industrialization in its wake brought considerable change in socio-political sphere. Western and central parts of Europe witnessed rapid growth of industrialization leading to the growth of towns and cities and a strong commercial class whose existence was based on production for the market. II. This industrialization also resulted in the emergence of working class population and a new middle class comprising industrialists, businessmen and professionals. III. It was among these educated, liberal, middle classes that the ideas of national unity and of abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity. All these change had great impact on the society and political life of the people. 25. I. The educated middle class comprising the professionals, commercial class, and industrialists spearheaded nationalist movement in Europe. Imbibed by liberal ideas they demanded freedom of individuals, freedom of press, equal right and equality before law. Their main demands were: II. Politically they emphasized representative government based on the consent of the citizens. They stood for governance by constitution which was made by National Parliament. III. They stood for end of autocracy and abolition of private privileges based on birth or heredity. In economic sphere they opposed state imposed restriction on trade and advocated freedom of markets. 26. Liberalism advocated freedom of individuals in all spheres.

18 I. In post-revolutionary period Napoleon introduced uniform civil code, unified administration, abolished vexatious custom duties on goods, standardized weights and measures and introduced uniform currency, in all the areas that came under his control. People, though they belonged to different regions felt like one nation. II. By encouraging unhindered movement of commercial goods and by removing obstacles to economic exchanges he was able to generate a sense of belonging among people. III. This was the genesis of economic nationalism which ultimately strengthened national feeling. Network of railways for free movement among various regions and harnessing of economic interests help in national unification. Thus, liberalism is closely related to economic nationalism. 27. Duke Metternich was the Austrian Chancellor and was the host of congress of Vienna in He was a great diplomat and one of the powerful political figures during that period. He represented the conservative forces of Europe. Along with the representatives of England, Prussia and France signed the treaty of Vienna in His main object was to undo everything that Napoleon achieved after the French Revolution. 28. I. As a result of the political upheaval in France in July 1830, the bourbon dynasty which was restored in 1815 was overthrown by the liberal revolutionaries. II. A constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe at its head was installed in France. III. The July revolution as upheaval sparked an uprising in other places like Brussels. This make Belgium break away from kingdom of Netherlands. 29. By the act of the parliament 1707, Scotland was incorporated in the United Kingdom. Ireland, however, was still out of this union. Ireland was a country deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants. The English helped Protestants of Ireland to impose their dominance over catholic country. Catholics revolted against British dominance but were brutally suppressed. Last bid of revolt was organized by Wolfe Tone and his united Irishmen in 1798 but their efforts failed. Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in Long answer type Questions (5 marks) 1. In the administrative field napoleon introduced many revolutionaries principles. He modernized traditional institutions to make the state power effective and strong. A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy and dynamic economy strengthened his rule. He introduced uniform civil code in 1809 which was revolutionary in nature because it did away all privileges based on birth, established equality before law and secured the right to property. Napoleon simplified administrative division, abolished judicial system and freed peasants of serfdom.

19 2. I. Napoleon, through the code of 1804 did away with all privileges based on birth. II. Established equality before law. III. Secured the right to property. IV. Abolished feudal system. V. Simplified administrative divisions. VI. Improved transports and communication system. 3. I. Art and poetry, stories and music helped to express and shape nationalist feelings. II. Romanticism, a cultural movement sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiments. III. Romantic artists and poets, generally criticized the glorification of reason and science and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural past as the basis of nation. IV. Other romantics felt that true german culture was to be discovered among the common people Das Volk. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of the nation was popularized. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to project nation building. V. Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russia occupied Poland, the polish language was replaced by Russian in school and other places. In 1831, there was an armed rebellion against this. Though suppressed, the use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance. 4. The first clear expression of nationalism came in France with the French revolution of I. A French flag, the tricolor, was chosen to replace the formal royal standard. II. The Estates General was elected by the body of native citizens and was renamed as the National Assembly. III. A centralized administrative system was put in place and it formulated uniform laws for all citizens within the territory. Equal right was given by constitution to all its citizens. 5. I. In political field liberalism stood for freedom of the individual, equality of all before law. II. Politically it emphasized the concept of government by consent. It stood for end of autocracy. III. In the economic field liberalism stood for the freedom of markets. IV. The abolition of state imposed restriction on the movement of goods and capital. V. For example in 1834, a customs union or Zollverein was formed at the initiative of Prussia and it joined all German states. Zollverein abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies.

20 6. I. Prior to 18 th century there was no British nation. People who inhabited British Island were identified by ethnic group to which they belong such as English, Walsh, scots, or Irish and had their culture and political tradition. II. Out of these the English nation steadily grew in importance, wealth and power was able to extend its influence over other nation of the island. III. The English parliament which had seized power from monarchy in 1688 was the instrument through which a nation- state with England at the center came to be forged. IV. The act of the union (1707) between England and Scotland resulted in the formation of Great Britain. V. In effect it meant that Scotland came under the influence of England. The British parliament from now was dominated by the English members. (Overall assignment) 7. Because of geographical and ethnic diversities Habsburg Empire symbolized as patchwork of different regions and people of Europe. It included alpine region of Tyrol, Austria and Sudetenland as well as bohemia Galicia and Italian region of Lombardy and Venetia. Several languages were spoken in these regions, e.g., in Hungary the people spoke Magyar in Galiciapolish in Lombardy a Venetia- Italian in bohemia and Sudetenland they spoke german. The language spoken by the aristocracy was german, Italian, polish while the peasants usually spoke local dialects. Various ethnic groups lived the peripheries of the empire. Three dominant groups lived within the boundaries of the empire. A mass of subjects peasants people were bohemians and Slovaks in the north Slovenes in Carniola, Croats in the south and roumans to the east of Transylvania. Only binding force among these groups was a common allegiance to the emperor. 8. though the ideas of nation- states was accepted by the all countries as natural and universal, the people everywhere had developed their own specific ways of national development. Balkan region in Eastern Europe presented a unique example of how the rebellious nationalities in the Balkan region struggled to win back their long-lost independence. Balkans was the region of geographical and ethnic variation comprising modern day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Slovenia, and Montenegro. The inhabitant belong to the ethnic group called the slave. Large part of the Balkans were under the control of the declining Ottoman Empire. Empirical power of Europe completed with one another to extend control over the region because of the strategic position of Balkan region. This resulted in intense rivalry among these power. Despite belonging to one ethnic group the people of Balkan region were separated from each other because of domination of other power. The spread of nationalist ideas among the slave together with the disintegration of Ottoman Empire made these region very explosive. Balkan area thus became an area of intense conflict leading to series of war in the region. These conflict eventually culminated in the First World War. 9. I. Giuseppe Mazzini. Mazzini was a great revolutionary leader who contributed to the unification of Italy. He inspired the youth of Italy with nationalist ideas and set up secret sociality like young Italy to involve the youth in revolutionary activities.

21 II. Count Camillo De Cavour. Cavour was the chief minister of the kingdom of piedmont and led the movement of Italian unification. Through act and diplomacy he secured French help against Austria and succeed in the setting up the united Italian kingdom. III. The Greek war of independence. Greece was the part of the Ottoman Empire since 15 th century. The growth of revolutionary nationalism in Europe sparked a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks, which began in With the support of the masses, poet and artist and west European, the Greeks succeeded in getting independence which was proclaimed with the treaty of Constantinople in IV. Frankfurt parliament. In the wake of revolutionary movement a large number of political association were set up in Germany consisting of middle class professional, businessmen, and an artisans. On 18 th may 1848 they assemble in the city of Frankfurt to vote for a german national assembly. 831 representative marched in a procession to take their place in the Frankfurt parliament convened in the church of St. Paul. V. they drafted a constitution for making Germany a constitutional monarchy (i.e. the state is headed by a monarch who is subjected to the parliament). 10. The French revolutionary ideas spread to other countries and inspired the oppressed people, with liberal ideas. a. The French revolutionaries clearly said that it was their mission to liberate not only the French people but people of all parts of Europe from the despotism and help them to become nation. b. Jacobin clubs were set up to spread these ideas. c. With the outbreak revolutionary wars the French armies began to carry the idea of nationalism to other countries. d. Napoleon, when came to power and conquered large areas, had contributed in creating a feeling of oneness among people by introducing revolutionary principle and setting up uniform administrative system. e. In 1804, he introduced the civil code which abolished all privileges based on birth. He also abolished feudal system and freed the peasants from bondage. f. These reforms were applicable to all region under French control. 11. Though the Napoleonic reforms were welcomed by many including the businessmen and small scale producer of goods, it did not satisfied all. Especially in the conquered regions the reaction to French rule was mixed. To begin with the French armies were welcomed as (messenger) of liberty in Holland and Switzerland as well as a city like Brussels, Milan, etc. But the initial enthusiasm soon turned to hostility as they realized that administrative reform did not go hand in hand with political freedom.

22 The people there were unhappy with increase taxation and censorship. Forced conscription in to French army to conquer other part of Europe was an extremely unpopular measure for them. 12. By 1848, most of the central European countries were in turmoil, I. Food shortage and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris on the road. II. In February 1848 revolution organized by the educated middle class. III. Barricades were created and Louis Phillippe was forced to flee. IV. A national assembly proclaimed a republic in France. V. The national assembly granted suffrage to all adult males, above 21, and guaranteed to right to work. National workshops were set up to provide employment. 13. I. Garibaldi was the most celebrated Italian freedom fighter. II. In 1833, he meet Mazzini and join the young Italy movement and participated in the republican uprising in piedmont in III. Though he was compelled to go in exile till 1848, he supported victor Emmanuel II in his effort to unify the Italian state. IV. In 1860, garibaldi led the famous expedition of the thousand to the south Italy. His volunteers called red shirts made occupation of south Italy possible. V.in 1867, he led these volunteers to Rome to fight the papal state, the last obstacle to the unification of Italy. Though they were no match to the French garrison who protect these states, the contribution and dedication of garibaldi cannot be undermined. In 1870, Italy was unified when, during his war with Prussia, French troops were withdrawn, and the papal state of Rome was freed. 14. Important achievement of the French revolution of 1789 were (a) Led to drastic political and constitutional changes, transfer of sovereignty from monarchy to national assembly, an elected body of French citizens. (b) The revolution proclaimed that henceforth the French people would constitute the nation and shape its destiny. (c) The new constitution guaranteed equality before law. Uniform laws were made. (d) The royal standard was replaced by the national flag-the French tricolor. (e) The French parliament, the estate general, was renamed as the national assembly. (f) A centralized administrative system was put in place. 15. I. because of some inherent reason, political unity was difficult to be achieved in the Hapsburg Empire. Hapsburg Empire was a patchwork of many different region and people.

23 ii. In included the alpine region of Tyrol, Austria and Sudetenland- as well as bohemian and Galicia and Italian region of Lombardy and Venetia. iii. Several languages were spoken in these region, e.g. in Hungary the people spoke Magyar in Galicia-polish in Lombardy and venetia-italian in bohemia and german in Sudetenland. iv. Similarly the language spoken by the aristocracy and peasants was different. Peasants usually spoke local dialect, whereas the aristocracy spoke german, Italian, polish, etc. v. under these circumstance the feeling of nationalism or a sense of belonging to one state do not develop. A sense allegiance to an emperor was the only binding force among these divorce people. 16. Metternich, the Austrian chancellor, once said if France sneezes the rest of the Europe catches cold. I. It was true on more than one occasion. After the revolution in France in 1789, the revolutionary spirit spread to many others countries. II. The ideas of equality, liberty, and fraternity moved many minds. The liberalism experienced by postrevolutionary France inspired the educated people all over Europe. III. Similarly after the political upheaval in France in 1830, it sparked revolution in other places like Brussels. IV. As a result Belgium broke away from the kingdom of Netherlands. V. Thus it is clear that what happened in France had a great impact of the people of other countries. Being the most powerful country of Europe at that time, it set the social and political standard. 17. i. Though France was proclaimed a republic in 1848, independent status did not exist yet in other states such as Germany, Italy, Poland and Austro-Hungarian Empire. ii. Men and women in liberal middle class combine their demand for constitutionalism and national unification in Germany. iii. Taking advantages of growing popular unrest they pushed their demand for the creation of nation-state, framing of constitutional monarchy and freedom of press and association. iv. in the german region middle class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artesian came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for and all german national assembly. On 18 may 1848, as many 831 elected representatives marched to take their position in the Frankfurt assembly. v. they also draft a constitution for a german nation. They proposed a constitutional monarchy headed by Wilhelm IV, the King of Prussia. vi. The Frankfurt parliament was thus greatly significant because it provided an opportunity for a peaceful change from absolutely monarchy to constitutional monarchy. vii. The effort of the people however failed because when the crown was offered to Wilhelm IV, the King of Prussia, he rejected it and joined other conservative monarch to oppose the elected assembly. The hope of people was thus belied.