CHALLENGES AND PROBLEMS AFFECTING THE PARTICIPATION OF DISABLED CHILDREN IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES: Efrem Kentiba

Transcription

1 CHALLENGES AND PROBLEMS AFFECTING THE PARTICIPATION OF DISABLED CHILDREN IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES: THE CASE OF SOME SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF ARBA MINCH BY Efrem Kentiba A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES OF ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULLFILMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF SCIENCE IN SPORT SCIENCES June 2013 Addis Ababa i

2 CHALLENGES AND PROBLEMS AFFECTING THE PARTICIPATION OF DISABLED CHILDREN IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND EXTRACURRICULAR ACTIVITIES: THE CASE OF SOME SELECTED PRIMARY SCHOOLS OF ARBA MINCH BY Efrem Kentiba A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES OF ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULLFILMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF SCIENCE IN SPORT SCIENCES June 2013 Addis Ababa ii

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4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The achievement for the completion of this study is credited to the contributions made by a number of persons. First and for most I express my deepest gratitude to my adviser Dr. Tesfay Asgedom for all guidance, support and giving me suggestive and educative comments in the process of conducting my thesis work. In line with this I want to express my thanks to Addis Ababa University department of sport science for providing me with necessary assistances to conduct the study. I also extend my thanks to my family, and friends indeed for role they played by sharing ideas and technically supporting the thesis work. In addition to this my gratitude will further go to different concerned bodies at Arba Minch as Arba Minch College of Teachers Education, Arba Minch, Kulifo, Sikela and Chamo Primary schools for providing me all necessary information and materials needed for the accomplishment of my work. iv

5 ACRONYMS APE CWDs IDEA IEP NDCs NGO s PE SNNPRS UNICEF Adapted physical education Children with disabilities Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Individualized education plan Non disabled children Nongovernmental organizations Physical Education Southern Nations Nationalities and peoples Regional State United Nations International Children s Fund v

6 ABSTRACT This study is attempted to indentify major challenges and problems affecting the participation of disabled children in physical education and extracurricular activities in selected schools of Arba Minch town administration. Using mixed type of research design, it is attempted to seek out the problems and challenges affecting afore mentioned children participation in the subject as well as extracurricular activities. Semi structured questionnaire for teachers, structured interview both for students with disabilities and non disabled students as well as school administrators and observation using check lists was administered to a total of 43 deliberately selected subjects or informants in selected schools. The data obtained through these tools is analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantitatively the analysis is made using tables and charts and qualitatively using words. Based on analysis made major findings were drawn, as the findings shows that factors and challenges associated with materials, equipments, school compound, absence of disability sport competitions, poor pupil to pupil support, limited professional development trainings, incomprehensive curriculum is found as a challenge and problems which limits participation of disabled children in school Physical education and extracurricular activities. From the major findings, the researcher provided possible solutions for teachers, curriculum experts, students and all concerned bodies. Accordingly, curriculum experts and policy makers should reconsider teaching materials in different levels to make them inclusive, Physical education teachers should play great role in creating pupil to pupil interaction among disabled and non disabled children, prepare disability sport competitions as for non disables ones, create conditions for physical education teachers to take part in professional development trainings. Key Words: Children with disabilities, extracurricular activities, Physical Education vi

7 CONTENTS PAGE CONTENTS Acknowledgment Acronyms Abstract Table of contents List of tables List of Figures PAGE i ii iii iv vii viii ix CHAPTER I Introduction 1 6 CHAPTER II Review of related literature 7 29 CHAPTER - III Research Design and Methodology CHAPTER IV Analysis and Interpretations of Data CHAPTER V Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations References vii

8 CHAPTER I 1 6 Introduction Back ground of the study Statement of the problem Research Questions Objective of the study Significance of the study Delimitation of the study Limitation of the Study Definition of terms Organization of the study 6 CHAPTER II 7 29 Review of related literature An overview of Concepts of disability Types of disabilities Disability in Ethiopia Physical Education (PE) Extracurricular activities Extracurricular activities and students with disabilities Benefits of participation in extracurricular activities Factors affecting the participation of disabled students in PE and extracurricular activities Problems related to equipment Institutional factors Teachers related barriers Students related problems 25 viii

9 2.6 Sport as a tool for the inclusion of persons with disabilities Physical education opportunities of children with disabilities Methods of Modifying Games and Activities 29 CHAPTER III Research Design and Methodology Study Area Research design Study Population Sampling Method Data gathering instruments Questionnaire Interview Observation Pilot study Methods of Data Analysis Qualitative Analysis Quantitative Analysis Validity CHAPTER - IV Analysis and Interpretations of Data 35 ix

10 4.1 Section One: General demographic characteristics of the respondents Number of participants Section two: Quantitative analysis Knowledge and information about disability Support and resources for teaching students with a Disability Responses of the Respondents on Attitude Scale Items Section three: Qualitative analysis Analysis of school directors data Interpretation and discussion of observation Analysis of Student s interview 63 CHAPTER V Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations Summary Recommendations Conclusions 74 References 76 Appendices x

11 LIST OF TABLE Tables Pages Table 1: Number of participants in the study 35 Table 2: Table 3: Teacher participants characteristics by age, sex and educational level Teacher s response towards information about disability and PE opportunities for CWDs Table 4: Shows presence of separate curriculum for CWDs 39 Table 5: Shows assistance gained by disabled students from NDCs ones 40 Table 6: Shows provision of extra period separately for CWDs 41 Table 7: Shows preparation of disability sport competitions for CWDs 43 Table 8: Table 9: Table 10: Participation of CWDs in physical education and extracurricular activities Shows opportunities available for CWDs to take part in school community activities Shows participation of disabled students in PE class and extracurricular activities Table 11: Shows assistance sought from government and NGO s 49 Table 12: Shows CWDs access to specialized equipments 50 Table 13: Shows teachers access to professional development trainings 51 Table 14: Table 15: Shows results of assistance provided for CWDs and availability of modified equipments Rating scale on teachers perceptions towards factors affecting the Participation of disabled children in PE and extracurricular activities Table 16: Information and codes given for sample schools and school leaders 59 Table 17: Shows disabled students additional information 63 Table 18: Shows non disabled students additional information xi

12 LIST OF FIGURES Figures Pages Figure 1: Perceptions of sport 27 Figure 2: Validity triangulation 34 Figure 3: Shows the presence or absence of separate curriculum 39 Figure 4: Shows percentage of help provided by non disabled students to 40 disabled ones Figure 5: Shows percentage of provision of extra period for disabled 41 students Figure 6: Reminder for school communities 42 Figure 7: Shows percentages of preparation of disability sport 43 competitions by schools Figure 8: Shows the participation of disabled students in school PE and 44 extracurricular activities Figure 9: Opportunities available for students with disabilities to take 46 part in school community activities Figure 10: Shows percentages of assistance sought by PE teachers from 49 concerned bodies Figure 11: Shows the percentages of presence of access to specialized 50 resources and equipments for CWDs Figure 12: Shows percentages of access to teachers professional development trainings 52 xii

13 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Back ground of the study Physical education and sports plays a typical role in the lives of the whole community and for people with disabilities, the same as it can for people without disabilities. They include play, exercise, recreation, organized, and non-organized competitive games that contribute to physical fitness, mental well-being and social interactions. There is a wealth of evidence to support participation in sport and physical activity for people with disabilities concerning trends, barriers and benefits of participation. In developing countries like Ethiopia, people with disabilities often face barriers to participate in sport and physical education activities, these may include complex issues like attitudes towards disability, traditional and religious beliefs, and physical education systems, i.e. the curriculum designed for each level, access to sporting infrastructure including services, facilities and equipment. As Byrne & Hills (2007) explained that the foundation for motor learning in children and the subsequent development of progressively more complex skills occurs during the early years of life. It is during this time that an individual who is physically more active is more likely to have the opportunity to refine their motor skills. It is through active play that children develop the fundamental movement patterns, such as crawling, 1

14 standing, walking, running and jumping. Children who have restricted physical activity may jeopardize their skill development and body composition due to a lower level of energy expenditure. As scholars suggests, movement is essential in the exploration of the child s physical capabilities and surrounding environment. Much enjoyment is experienced by children while participating in progressively more vigorous and physically challenging activities. 1.2 Statement of the problem As the topic is challenges and problems of participation of disabled children in physical education and extracurricular activities in case of some selected schools of Arba Minch town administration. O Connor et al (2000) suggested that small amount of research studies available have shown that physical education programs for children with disabilities may lead to a decrease in inappropriate behaviors, and an increase in the level of physical fitness as well as greater enjoyment of physical and recreational activity. Pan and Frey (2006) have also identified that children with disabilities have fewer opportunities for extracurricular activities. In all aspects of school life, children with disabilities have less or no access to physical education activities. Therefore, in the attempt to promote the participation of disabled children in sport and physical education programs, government, physical education teachers, curriculum experts, sports scientists, the community and all concerned bodies have the role to play in creating opportunities for those children and solving major problems and challenges hindering their participation in physical education and extracurricular activities, and hence the present research is designed to bring all the stake holders attention to the issue to help alleviate the challenges. 2

15 1.3 Research questions Based on the statement of the problem, the research is expected to answer the following basic questions: 1. What are the potential problems and challenges hindering the participation of disabled children in physical education and extracurricular activities in the selected schools? 2. Does problems and challenges related to curriculum and methodology affects the participation of disabled children in PE lessons? 3. How often do disabled students take part in physical education practical sessions? 4. Is there peer to peer assistance trend between disabled and non disabled students in the schools? 1.4 Objectives of the study General Objective The general objective of this study is to find out major problems and challenges hindering the participation of disabled children in physical education and extracurricular activities in the case of some selected schools of Arba Minch town administration Specific Objectives To indentify overall challenges hindering the participation of disabled children in physical education and extracurricular activities. To investigate the efforts done by PE teachers, school principals and concerned bodies to make effective participation of disabled students in school physical education and extracurricular activities. 3

16 To analyze school environment factors that hinders disabled students participation in physical education and extracurricular activities. To suggest possible solutions to the potential problems hindering the partaking of disabled children in physical education and extracurricular activities. 1.5 Significance of the study The researcher believes that, the study will give suggestions and tips for professionals in the proceeds of physical education instructional process. To this end the findings of this research may have the following significances: It may help teachers, facility designers, curriculum experts and concerned bodies to design a strategy that promotes participation of disabled children in physical education and extracurricular activities. It will provide instructional insights for physical education teachers to enhance teaching methodology & improve stakeholders perception towards disabled students. It may help as a spring board for discussions and serve as preliminary information to carry out other in-depth studies in the area. It may also contribute its part to change the attitudes of disabled students towards physical education and sports. 4

17 1.6 Delimitation of the study This study is confined in its scope to selected primary schools of Arba Minch town Administration. In addition to this, it is delimited only to investigate the problems and challenges related to disabled children participation in physical education and extracurricular activities. The population of the study is physical education teachers, disabled students, school principals and randomly selected non disabled students from selected schools. 1.7 Limitation of the study The researcher doesn t believe that the study is totally free from any type of limitations. As a result, factors like unavailability of literature review in the area, time and financial constraints affected the researchers schedule to conduct the research effectively. 1.8 Definition of terms Ability: Ability refers to the quality of being able to perform. In sports, some people better performs than others. They are genetic traits that are prerequisite to the development of skill proficiency. Child: a person 14 years and under. Usually in all states a "child" should be distinguished from a "minor" who is anyone under 18. Disability - According to WHO (1980), classification system, disability is the consequence of impairment with functional performance and activity by the individual Extracurricular Activities- organized student activities connected with school and usually carrying no academic credit. Performance: is observed behavior that can be improved with practice how you do something, how well you do it, and how much work you put into it. 5

18 Person with Disability: is one having a physical or mental impairment; which is long term or recurring; and which substantially limits his/her prospects. Physical education: is the integral part of total educational process that enhances and integrates physical, social and mental aspects of individuals life through directed physical activities. Sport: is competitive physical activity between team and/or individual opponents that is governed by a rules and regulations. 1.9 Organization of the study This research work is prearranged in five broad chapters. Chapter one deals with introduction, statement of the problems, research questions, objectives of the study, significance of the study, delimitation of the study, limitations of the study, definition of terms and organization of the study. Chapter two is about review of related literature. Chapter three deals with research design and methodology. Chapter four deals with analysis and interpretations of data collected. And finally the last chapter involves summary, conclusions and recommendations provided by the researcher. 6

19 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In this part of the research paper, the researcher endeavored to discuss and analyze other similar studies, who studied and where it was conducted, what results were found, helps analyze the problem using theoretical insight and concepts, as well as studies in different regions which shows how the problem manifested itself in different socio-cultural regions, so that, thorough reviews of conceptual frame works of disabling conditions, physical education, extracurricular activities and related literatures to the topic were discussed. 2.1 An overview of concepts of disability According to Auxter (2010) explanations regarding disability, there is a perception by persons in the public that disability refers to persons who are in wheelchair; however, in realty the number of persons in wheelchair is small. Most disabilities are invisible from the public because they are neuromuscular, cardiovascular, chronic respiratory and/or mental disorders. The term disability is any physical or mental condition that limits a person s movements, senses or activities. It is conventionally used to refer to attributes that are severe enough to interfere with, or prevent, normal day-to-day activities. According to the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, persons with disabilities include those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which, in interaction with various barriers, may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others. Disabilities can be permanent, temporary, or episodic/periodic. They can 7

20 affect people from birth, or be acquired later in life through injury or illness. Everyone in the society may experience disability at some point in their existence. Disability is a normal part of the human experience, and people with disabilities are part of all sectors of the community: men, women, and children; indigenous and non indigenous; employers and employees; students and teachers; consumers and citizens. Disability begins with impairment, which leads to disability that leads to handicap. As WHO (1980) defined the terms, Impairment: is any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical, or other genetic or environmental agents; Disability: refers to any restriction or lack of ability to perform an activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for human being; and finally Handicap: mean a disadvantage for a given individual that limits or prevents the fulfillment of a role that is normal depending on age, sex, and social and cultural factors for that individual. Disability is both social and individual problem. Primarily it is a social problem, because what stops the individual disabled person from contributing is the attitude of non-disabled persons towards him or her. According to World Bank report approximately 600 million people, or 10% of the world s population, have a disability and that 80% of these people live in developing nations. If families of persons with disabilities are included, at least 25% of the world is directly affected by disability. 8

21 2.1.1 Types of disabilities It is important to recognize that students with disabilities studying on schools have a variety of disabilities. When planning events and activities, programmers teachers and concerned bodies should consider many accessibility and accommodation issues. Remember a person with a disability is not defined by their condition; each person is a unique individual. But a good place to start is an understanding of types of disabilities and their impact. As professionals in the area agree, disability is a functional limitation or restriction of an individual's ability to perform an activity. But that does not mean that a person with a disability cannot participate equally. Appropriate accommodations and supports can ensure inclusion of all students in school life. A list of disabilities can never be complete or finalized because individuals, organizations, and governments define and categorize disabilities differently. According to Nichcy (2012) categories of disability under IDEA disability types includes, autism; orthopedic impairment; deaf-blindness; specific learning disability; deafness; visual impairment (including blindness). emotional disturbance; speech or language impairment; hearing impairment; traumatic brain injury; or intellectual disability; other health impairment; etc multiple disabilities; 9

22 After categorizing disability by type, Nichcy (2012) also made meanings or definitions of the types of disabilities mentioned above. Accordingly, Autism...means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three that adversely affects a child s educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engaging in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. The term autism does not apply if the child s educational performance is adversely affected primarily because the child has an emotional disturbance. ( Deaf-Blindness...means concomitant (simultaneous) hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness. ( Deafness...means a hearing impairment so severe that a child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification that adversely affects a child's educational performance. ( 10

23 Emotional Disturbance...means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child s educational performance: a. An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors. b. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers. c. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances. d. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression. e. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. The term includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance Hearing Impairment...means an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating that adversely affects a child s educational performance but is not included under the definition of deafness. ( Intellectual Disability...means significantly sub average general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently [at the same time] with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period, that adversely affects a child s educational performance. ( 11

24 Multiple disabilities...means concomitant [simultaneous] impairments (such as intellectual disability-blindness, intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment), the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the impairments. The term does not include deaf-blindness. ( Orthopedic Impairment...means a severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child s educational performance. The term includes impairments caused by a congenital anomaly (irregularity), impairments caused by disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes (e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures). ( Other Health Impairment...means having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, thatis due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and adversely affects a child s educational performance. ( 12

25 Specific Learning Disability...means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of intellectual disability; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. ( Speech or Language Impairment...means a communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a child s educational performance. ( Traumatic Brain Injury...means an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child's educational performance. The term applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment; problem solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions; information processing; and speech. The term does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or degenerative, or to brain injuries induced by birth trauma. ( 13

26 Visual Impairment Including Blindness...means impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child s educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness. ( Disability in Ethiopia When dealing with disabling conditions in Ethiopia there is no sufficient numerical data on the prevalence of disability and the situation of children with disabilities (CWDs) in schools. According to UNICEF Ethiopia s disability program (2006) report reliable information on disability in Sub Saharan Africa is hard to find. Data from this region is poor and often states the disability figure to be an unrealistic five percent. This low figure could be due to poor identification of disabilities, a lack of data collection or because of few intervention programs presently exist in Africa. In the report it is indicated that, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (2002) produced a country profile in Ethiopia on disabled people. It estimated that 7.6 % of the population lives with a disability (approximately 5 million). A separate WHO study estimates that it is 10%, meaning that 7.7 million people are living with a disability. Disabled people living in Ethiopia have to cope with poor awareness and limited support. Begging is a prevailing method of existence in metropolitan centers, as it is help from religious institutions and charities. Certain disabled groups are victims of prejudice, especially in rural areas. Children suffer from neglect and abuse. In the most extreme cases they have been shut inside their homes and deliberately kept away from other people because of the disgrace they bring their families. 14

27 Due to these issues they face several challenges and problems in all aspects of life (school, community, family ) according to USAID/Ethiopia disability inclusion strategy, people with disabilities in Ethiopia face many barriers, these include issues related to: accessibility, discrimination, stigma/negative attitudes, low expectations, low self-confidence, lack of organizational support, and safety and security. Barriers are generally categorized as policy/institutional, environmental, and attitudinal. For environmental barriers, building and structures are not typically accessible to all (including school playgrounds, service centers, recreational places ). Transportation services are likewise not accessible to all, and information is not provided in all accessible formats. Due to environmental issues and negative attitudes, people with disabilities are often excluded from educational and other services. As several studies shows, in educational centers and contexts in many levels and parts of the developing world Children with disabilities face many problems to take part in different activities. 2.3 Physical Education (PE) According to studies in Physical Education (PE) the subject is considered as the cornerstone of a school-based comprehensive physical activity program. It provides the basis and opportunities for young people to gain the knowledge and skills needed to maintain physically active lifestyles throughout childhood and into adulthood. As it is mentioned by Anthony Laker (2000) from the name, physical education, one might expect the school subject to consist of education of the physical, through the physical and about the physical. Unfortunately characterization of the subject is not so easy and there are many aspects that need to be considered before a definitive statement can be made about what constitute the aims and objectives of physical education. This is not intended as a meta-analysis of 15

28 research into physical education teaching and learning, but is an attempt to describe and then synthesize into a digestible package what we know. When the aims are stated, the physical are generally in the minority. In a survey of sixteen teachers, Underwood (1983) found that the top five aims mentioned for physical education were skill acquisition; education for leisure; health and fitness; socialization; and enjoyment. Only two of these are physical, the other three are affective, social or cognitive. A broader view is taken by Willgoose (1984) whose statements of aims and purposes have a theoretical rather than experimental basis. Willgoose states that the major objectives are to develop and maintain physical fitness and motor skills, social competency and intellectual competency. We see that the physical accounts for half the outcomes. Willgoose also discusses whether physical education is in fact the correct name for the subject when so few outcomes appear to be physical: he discusses the merits of subject titles such as human movement, movement education, kinesiology and sports education. A quality PE program can increase student participation in physical activity, increase their physical fitness, and enhance their understanding about the purpose and methods of physical activity. Participation in PE is associated with an increased likelihood of participating regularly in moderate to vigorous physical activity. A quality PE program should: meet the needs of all students (inclusive); be an enjoyable experience for all students; keep students active for most of PE class time; teach self-management as well as movement skills; and emphasize knowledge and skills for a lifetime of physical activity. 16

29 . Effective school-based PE programs must also take into consideration children who are obese or who have physical or cognitive disabilities, chronic diseases, or low levels of fitness. These children may need instruction in PE and physical activity programs to develop motor skills, improve physical fitness, and experience enjoyment and success. Influencing students attitudes towards and perceptions of physical activity may affect their involvement in physical activity outside of PE class. Physical education should encourage students to view physical activity as important and enjoyable. Increasing students confidence in their ability to engage in physical activity increases the likelihood of enjoyment and therefore, the likelihood of regular participation in physical activity. Students are more likely to have positive attitudes towards physical activity if their needs and interests are met through a variety of activities. They should also understand many benefits of physical activity, and should be able to apply their newly acquired skills through various opportunities. Every Physical Educator will be faced with the issue of inclusion and diversity in their classroom. These issues may include resolving differences and stereotypes, integrating students with physical and mental disabilities into activities and successfully including students of various skill levels in a physical education program. Through careful planning, organization and research these issues can be managed and a physical educator can create a safe environment in which every student, no matter their abilities, can flourish and develop the habits that lead to lifelong physical activity. 17

30 In some situations, physical educators will be faced with the challenge of integrating a student with a disability into their physical education lessons. A physical educator will need to be well organized and plan a creative and safe lesson for all students if a successful integration is to be achieved. Planning and organization needs to include some research such as looking over the disabled student s Individualized Education Plan (IEP) to determine what goals have been set for the student s learning experience. The physical educator must then plan for a program that meets these needs while meeting the needs of the other students in the class. As it is suggested by Sheena Gubrill cited in Helena Baert (2009) Strategies that a physical educator could incorporate include building a positive relationship between disabled and non disabled students so that, disabled ones feel more comfortable in the environment the teacher has created. Also, incorporating peers that also have a positive relationship with the student, that can help to give the disabled student the attention he/she requires while still allowing the physical educator to address the needs of the other students in the class. Still further, having a student with a disability in the classroom presents an opportunity for building student leadership skills in other students in the classroom. One of the most positive outcomes from this type of interaction is that students without disabilities experience a shift to more positive attitudes about students with disabilities. Lieberman, James and Ludwa, (2004) A physical educator could ask a non disabled student to aid the disabled student in certain activities and allow each student a chance at helping out and being a buddy (playmate) to the student with the disability. This can be as simple as leading them 18

31 through the activities or chatting with them. This does not only develops leadership skills but also compassion and understanding in the students in the classroom. This type of student-student interaction can also be used as a strategy to include those students who seem to be uncomfortable participating in physical education class and give them an opportunity to contribute to the class and participate in a way that they may find more comfortable. Block, Klavina and Flint (2007) describe examples of activities a student buddy can aid the disabled student in:... there will always be some who will be happy to help by pushing them from station to station, being their partner, talking to them during down time or during warm-up activities, playing in a modified game with adapted equipment, or even going off to the side and practicing bowling or other activities with them. So, through planning, research and organization a student with a disability can be successfully integrated into a physical education class. By using all the resources available to them, a physical educator can enrich not only the lives of disabled students, but also the lives of students without disabilities by including disabled students in their physical education programs. 2.4 Extracurricular activities There are different opinions of what is considered an extracurricular activity. A few examples of activities outside the school day may include pro-social activities such as dances, team sports, and performing arts, while in-school involvement activities may include intramurals, and 19

32 academic clubs. Different levels of activity involvement and participation may positively impact future success for those who participate. Research also indicated that both the type of extracurricular programs and level of participation may impact the individuals' development (Eccles, 2003). According to Gardner et al. (2008), theory and research on positive youth development emphasizes the transition of human development, and suggest that cultivating positive, supportive relationships with people and social institutions encourages healthy development. Considering this perspective, organized activities, such as extracurricular activities, can encourage healthy development because of the support and opportunities that are present compared to less positive after school options for children. Children who participate in structured activities are more likely to respect diversity, play by the rules, and contribute as a member of a team whether it is sports, scouting or clubs. Students participation in extracurricular activities is not common for children across disability groups. According to Casinger 2011, extracurricular activities began in the United States in the 19th century. At first they were just an additional part to the normal academic schedule for the year. Extracurricular activities usually had some practical or vocational interest that was included into the activities. The first extracurricular activities that were well known in schools started at Harvard and Yale University. They were literacy clubs that consisted of different debate clubs and Greek systems such as fraternities and sororities. Students in American schools were the first to initiate athletic clubs. (Casinger, J. 2011). Education world states that Participation in school activities, especially athletics, leads to higher self esteem and 20

33 enhanced status among peers, which some argue is deterrent to antisocial behavior. (Brown, M.D., 2000) Extracurricular activities are a part of students everyday life. They play important roles in student s lives. They have positive effects on student s lives by improving behavior, school performance, school completion, positive aspects to make successful adults, and social aspects Extracurricular activities and students with disabilities Schools usually offer extracurricular and nonacademic activities, which typically involve students of the same age and may be organized and supervised by school personnel. Examples of these activities include the school sports and recreational activities, school clubs like mini media, environmental protection, anti HIV, etc For children with disabilities who qualify for special education, there is a need as to design and provide appropriate academic and appropriate extracurricular and nonacademic activities Benefits of Participation in extracurricular activities When looking at the variety of school non academic options students may choose, it is important to consider how connecting with an activity might benefit them. It has been suggested by Eccles (2003), that participation in voluntary, school based extracurricular activities increase school participation and achievement as. This happens because it facilitates: a. the acquisition of interpersonal skills and positive social norms, b. membership in pro-social peer groups, and c. stronger emotional and social connections to one's school. 21

34 It then stands to reason that participation may contribute to an increase of wellness in mental health, improved students' engagement in school and achievement, strengthen their long-term educational outcomes and find that participation may decrease problem behaviors. According to studies in the area shows how being involved in physical education and extracurricular activities that may actually improve selfperceptions. It is important to understand that participation in extracurricular physical activities may influence the mental well-being of young people by reducing stress, keeping fit and feeling overall better about their appearances (Daley & Leahy, 2003) Factors affecting the participation of disabled students in PE and extracurricular activities Problems related to equipment Material and equipments are considered as one of the factors affecting the involvement of disabled children in physical education and extracurricular activities, as it is suggested by Auxter (2010) making instructional modifications for students with disabilities in physical education may be as simple as fining a different type of equipment for the students to use while learning. There are different options to utilize equipments in PE instructional process, according to Auxter for instance Using same equipment: every learner with in the class shares and uses the same equipment. 22

35 Similar but different equipment: it is possible to improve instructional modifications simply by changing the type of equipment available for students use. For example, a student with juvenile rheumatoid arthritis may not be able to participate in a volleyball game with a real volleyball but, may be successful in a volleyball game that uses a beach ball instead. A child with visual impairment may experience difficulty tracking a typical playground ball but would be able to participate in a game of catch if the ball were a bright fluorescent color. Specially designed equipment: it is possible to enhance opportunities for inclusion by providing the learner with a disability with specially designed equipments. Barriers within schools that restrict teachers providing physical education programs have been classified by Morgan and Hansen (2008) as being either institutional (outside the teachers control) or teacher-related (arising from the teachers behavior). The simplicity of this classification enables it to be applied to both primary and secondary school settings Institutional factors Previous research has highlighted many institutional barriers including budget constraints, scarce resources, reductions in time provisions in the curriculum, the absence of professional development, the crowded curriculum itself and the lack of facilities and equipment (Commonwealth of Australia, 1992; Hardman, 2008; Le Masurier& Corbin, 2006; Morgan & Hansen, 2008). Similarly, Dwyer et al. (2003) reported that the lower priority given to physical education, the absence of performance measures 23

36 for physical education and activity, and insufficient infrastructure were the three major institutional barriers identified by elementary teachers to the provision of a curriculum that was capable of meeting the health and physical education guidelines Teachers related barriers Most teacher-related barriers have been reported in primary school studies (Barroso, et. al, 2005; De Corby, et.al, 2005; The barriers described include possessing low levels of confidence or interest in teaching physical education, being unable to provide safely planned and structured lessons, having had personal negative experiences in physical education and lacking training, knowledge, expertise and qualifications to provide physical education (De Corby, et. al, 2005; This specialization should equip teachers with the skills to overcome barriers more easily and enable them to plan and implement programs accordingly. Despite the reports concerning the challenges and problems related to institutional and teacher-related similar to those found in the primary school studies by Boyle, Jones and Walters (2008) shows that teachers perceived that students were lured /revealed by the greater availability of sedentary opportunities and consequently suggested that lower levels of fitness and lower physical ability in students might be impacting on both delivery and participation in physical education and physical activity. Therefore, further consideration of other barriers in schools that inhibit the delivery of and students participation in physical education and extracurricular activities is necessary, student-related barriers are further 24

37 obstacles that teachers must be able to plan for and overcome when providing educational opportunities for students Students related problems Previous research on children s and adolescents self-reported barriers to participation in physical education and extracurricular activities has reported changing attitudes to activity and physical education, children decision making favoring more sedentary activities, the importance of peer pressure or desire for peer approval when choosing activities, the changing fitness levels of students, student unwillingness to participate, a dislike of activity, a lack of understanding of the benefits of physical activity and a decline in student interest (Boyle et al., 2008; Commonwealth of Australia, 1992; Dagkas & Stathi, 2007). The barriers to student learning and participation may in part be explained by social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986), which highlights the relationship between cognitive, behavioral and environmental factors that influence an individual s choices, including those relating to physical activity behavior. These three factors are not independent, but are mutually dependent and all influence learning and activity participation and choices within a host of contexts. Due to the large amount of time dedicated to schooling, students are influenced greatly within the school environment by many elements, including their teachers, their peers, the programs provided, their participation in classes and their engagement in curriculum and extra or co-curricular activities. The interaction and influence of all three factors on preferred behavior is certainly most evident at the primary school level, where adolescents begin to strengthen their own attitudes and beliefs regarding physical activity. In line with this, motivation of disabled students to activity should also be considered. 25

38 Motivations of People with a Disability to participate One of the most influential internal barrier observed in various contexts is the attitudes and motivations of people with disability, particularly selfconsciousness and low levels of confidence. This lack of confidence and self-esteem has been reported to manifest itself in the following ways: feeling different from the majority of the population. feeling unable to fit in at a sporting facility. self-consciousness or lack of confidence in asking for help and assistance in a sporting environment. A fear of failure on the part of the person with the disability can present another type of internal barrier, particularly in the case of people who have newly acquired their disability and with low selfesteem The 'Accepted' Definition of Sport by both society and some disabled people In line with the above, it is important to explore society's perceptions of sport and the generally accepted definition of what this activity entails. This is recapitulated in the diagram below 26

39 serious competition requires physical and mental completeness Sport got to be good winning playing to rules a right way of doing things Figure 1: Perceptions of sport Given the above, it is felt by people with a disability that the accepted face of sport inherently precludes them as a group. As such, one of the fundamental barriers that they face is being seen by both themselves and by others as capable and legitimate participants in this activity. This is further reinforced by a prevailing attitude amongst some that sport in the context of people with a disability is only valid in terms of therapy. That is, it only has a role to play in relation to rehabilitation rather than as an activity in its own right. 2.6 Sport as a tool for the inclusion of persons with disabilities Sport for persons with disabilities is not a new concept, but its full potential as a powerful, low-cost means to foster greater inclusion and well-being for persons with disabilities is only beginning to be realized. 27