3 6 Glossary of terms

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1 En KEY STAGE 2 National Curriculum assessments LEVELS 3 6 Glossary of terms Key Stage 2 English grammar, punctuation and spelling tests 2013

2 Crown copyright 2013 Glossary of terms: Key Stage 2 English grammar, punctuation and spelling test Product code: STA/13/6296/e PDF version ISBN: You may re-use this information (excluding logos) free of charge in any format or medium, under the terms of the Open Government Licence. To view this licence, visit or psi@nationalarchives.gsi.gov.uk. Where we have identified any third-party copyright information you will need to obtain permission from the copyright holders concerned. This publication is also available for download at

3 Key Stage 2 English grammar, punctuation and spelling 3 Contents 1. Introduction 4 2. Glossary of terms 5 Active voice 5 Adjective 5 Adverb 5 Adverbial 6 Antonym 6 Appropriacy 6 Article 6 Auxiliary verb 6 Causal connective 7 Clause 7 Coherence 7 Cohesion 7 Cohesive device 8 Complex verb phrase 8 Connective 8 Contraction 9 Coordinating connective 9 Demarcation 9 Finite and non-finite 10 Fronted adverbial 10 I and me 10 Imperative 10 Impersonal construction 11 Inflection 11 Internal sentence punctuation 11 Lexical verb 11 Modal verb 11 Nominalisation 12 Non-standard English 12 Noun 12 Noun phrase 12 Object 13 Passive voice 13 Personal pronoun 13 Phrase 13 Possessive determiner 13 Possessive pronoun 14 Prefix 14 Preposition 14 Pronoun 15 Reference chain 15 Relative clause 16 Relative pronoun 16 Rhetorical device 16 Roots of words and derivations 16 Sentence 17 Singular and plural 17 Standard English 18 Subject 18 Subject-verb agreement 18 Subordinating connective 18 Suffix 18 Synonym 18 Syntax 18 Temporal connective 19 Tense 19 Tense agreement 19 Verb 19 Verb inflection 20 Word class 20 Word families 20

4 4 Glossary of terms 1. Introduction The purpose of this document is to provide support to teachers with the grammatical terminology they may come across in relation to the English grammar, punctuation and spelling tests, the accompanying mark schemes and test framework. Many of the terms within this glossary fall outside the National Curriculum and will not appear in the tests themselves. It is therefore not expected that children should know all the terminology set out in this document. For further details about what is included in the tests, please refer to the content domain within the English grammar, punctuation and spelling test framework Until the assessment of the new curriculum begins, the test is based on the terms used in the current National Curriculum documents. At levels 3 5, all terms are aligned to the current National Curriculum programme of study for English at Key Stage 2 (1999). The level 6 test also samples content from the Key Stage 3 programme of study (2007). While many grammatical terms are straightforward and definitions may be sought from any trusted dictionary, definitions of some terms may vary according to different grammatical classification systems. For clarity, these words are defined for teachers in section 2, Glossary of terms.

5 Key Stage 2 English grammar, punctuation and spelling 5 2. Glossary of terms Active voice Adjective Adverb Most verbs in any text are expressed in the active voice. It is easily recognised since the subject and do-er or be-er of the action are the same, e.g. The girl closed the door. The kitten unravelled the ball of wool. Tom has smashed the pane of glass. An adjective can describe or modify a noun or pronoun. As some other word classes can also perform these functions, it is helpful to identify adjectives by the way in which they can be used, e.g. Before a noun the beautiful ballerina; what a heroic act; the stormy, restless sea. After a verb to complete the meaning of a clause this is important; the cat looked grumpy; it seemed very strange. Many adjectives also have a comparative and superlative form, e.g. I am taller than my sister; I am the tallest in my family; these shoes are more comfortable; these are the most comfortable shoes. An adverb can describe or modify the meaning of words other than nouns. Many adverbs are related to adjectives and in standard English consist of the adjective with -ly added. It commonly indicates: manner (how something happens), e.g. she waited patiently; slowly, they emerged; he performed well in the match time (when something happens), e.g. yesterday, it rained; he has already left; the bus arrived early frequency (how often something happens), e.g. occasionally, I make mistakes; he is usually at home place (where something happens), e.g. how will you travel there?; we are going abroad; they hid upstairs degree (to what extent something happens), e.g. it was entirely her fault; we hardly noticed; they were very polite causation (why something happens), e.g. so we stayed at home; nevertheless, we had a good time

6 6 Glossary of terms Adverbial Antonym An adverbial is any word, phrase or clause that functions like an adverb. An adverbial may contain an adverb but it does not have to; it may be a preposition phrase or a subordinate clause, e.g. We should look in here. (adverb) They fell asleep during the film. (preposition phrase) He woke as the sun began to rise. (subordinate clause) An adverbial can be placed at the beginning, middle or end of a clause, e.g. At the railway station, I waited for my train to Manchester. I waited at the railway station for my train to Manchester. I waited for my train to Manchester at the railway station. Since an adverbial s usual position is at the end of a sentence, it is described as fronted when at the front and embedded when it is in the middle. Two words are antonyms if their meanings are opposites. Appropriacy Article L3 5 Auxiliary verb Used in the level 6 mark scheme, appropriacy refers to whether the writing is grammatically and semantically appropriate for the intended purpose and audience. English has two articles: the is the definite article. It is used to indicate that the person, place or thing can be identified by the hearer or reader, e.g. Put it on the wooden table. The blue parrot flew overhead. We listened to the orchestra. a (or an before a vowel sound and sometimes before an h ) is the indefinite article. It indicates that the person, place or thing cannot be identified by the hearer or reader, e.g. Put it on a wooden table. A blue parrot flew overhead. We listened to an orchestra. See verb.

7 Key Stage 2 English grammar, punctuation and spelling 7 Causal connective See connective. Clause Coherence A clause is a group of words built around a verb. Sentences are made up of one or more clauses. A main clause contains a finite verb. It can form a sentence on its own and therefore is sometimes referred to as an independent clause, e.g. He put on his coat. A subordinate clause is dependent for its meaning on the main clause and is therefore sometimes referred to as a dependent clause. It cannot stand alone as, without the main clause, its meaning is unclear, e.g. He put on his coat because it was cold. Subordinate clauses can be classified as: relative clauses, e.g. the book that I was reading. adverb clauses, e.g. He put on his coat because it was cold. noun clauses, e.g. I know that it s raining. Clauses can be finite or non-finite depending on the verb form used, e.g. They went to the beach when it stopped raining. (clause using a finite verb) Looking out of the window, he waved to the postman. (clause using a non-finite verb) She had to work hard to achieve her goal. (clause using a non-finite verb) Reassured by his coach, he resumed his training programme. (clause using a non-finite verb) Most subordinate clauses can be fronted (placed at the front of the main clause in a sentence), embedded (placed in the middle of the main clause in a sentence) or placed at the end of the main clause in a sentence. In the level 6 mark scheme, coherence refers to the overall structure and shape of the text, and how it is organised and sequenced for the reader. Cohesion In the level 6 mark scheme cohesion refers to how ideas are linked within paragraphs, i.e. within and between sentences, using cohesive devices.

8 8 Glossary of terms Cohesive device Complex verb phrase Connective A cohesive device is a word or grammatical structure that signals a link between ideas within and across clauses, sentences and paragraphs. Connectives, pronouns, vocabulary choices and punctuation can all support textual cohesion. I always save my pocket money whereas my brother spends his straightaway. John enjoys school; he is particularly good at art. We had good weather on holiday last week. It was sunny for three days although it was slightly cooler on Thursday. However, it warmed up again towards the end of our stay. In longer pieces of text, cohesion is aided by backward and forward references, typically through the use of pronouns, deliberate repetition and synonyms. This is sometimes called a reference chain. A complex verb phrase consists of a lexical verb and one or more auxiliary verbs, e.g. He was running. He has been running. He should have been running. A connective is a general term for words that link ideas together, e.g. although, but, on the other hand. Connectives often act as cohesive devices to support text coherence. There are different types of connectives that perform different functions, e.g. Coordinating connectives join words, phrases or clauses that are equal. The main coordinating connectives are and, or, but. Subordinating connectives introduce a subordinate clause, e.g. because, although, unless. Temporal connectives signal time or chronology, e.g. next, first, later, meanwhile. Causal connectives signal cause and effect, e.g. because, therefore, consequently, so.

9 Key Stage 2 English grammar, punctuation and spelling 9 Contraction Coordinating connective A contraction is a shortened or simplified form of a word attached to the preceding word. Verbs in their contracted form use an apostrophe in place of any omitted letters. This is often referred to as an apostrophe for omission and is more typically found in informal writing, e.g. I m so excited. (I am) They ve decided to go by train. (They have) He d love to come too. (He would) We re off to the beach. (We are) It s a fabulous day. (It is) Who s got the picnic? (Who has) I would ve come but I have to cook dinner. (would have) She ll catch you up later. (She will) Sam ll catch the ball. (Sam will) See connective. Demarcation Some forms of punctuation are used to indicate (or demarcate) sentence boundaries. These are: full stops question marks exclamation marks ellipses A capital letter is always used to indicate the start of a sentence. A comma should never be used to demarcate a sentence boundary; when it is used in this way it is often referred to as a comma splice and is considered an error, e.g. I told him to go, he didn t listen. (incorrect) I told him to go. He didn t listen. (correct)

10 10 Glossary of terms Finite and non-finite Fronted adverbial The finite inflections of a verb express a choice of tense and person, e.g. She walks to school every day. They ran down the road. The clowns tumbled and juggled and the crowd roared with laughter. The non-finite inflections of a verb do not express these choices. There are three non-finite forms: The present participle (-ing), e.g. breathing heavily, we ran up the stairs; scowling fiercely, she opened the window and shouted. The past participle (-ed), e.g. exhausted by the climb, the hikers decided to rest; terrified, the children hid behind the curtain. The infinitive (to -), e.g. we wanted to arrive early; to function properly, the power must be switched on. See adverbial. I and me Imperative According to standard English: I is used on its own or with a noun when either is the subject of the verb: I went for a walk. Jane and I went for a walk. Me is used on its own or with a noun when either is the object of the verb: The teacher blamed me. The teacher blamed Jane and me. Me is also used when the pronoun is the object of a preposition: Jane came cycling with me. An imperative is a verb form that expresses a directive or a command. The verb is used in its base form, typically without a subject, e.g. Sit down; Come here; Put the glass in the basin.

11 Key Stage 2 English grammar, punctuation and spelling 11 Impersonal construction Inflection Internal sentence punctuation Lexical verb An impersonal construction is one without an agent or where the agent has been replaced with the impersonal dummy pronoun it : Politeness is expected at school. (without an agent) Visiting museums will expand children s knowledge. (without an agent) It may be wise to take an umbrella. (impersonal dummy pronoun it) An impersonal style often uses impersonal constructions, as well as, for example, nominalisation and the passive voice to achieve a more formal register. An inflection is an adaptation of a verb or noun, typically used to form a correct grammatical relationship within a sentence it is used to indicate tense, mood, number, person, gender, e.g. have/had, taking/taken, do/did, speak/spoke (tense) woman/women, horse/horses (number) A range of punctuation can be used within sentences to clarify meaning, e.g. colons to introduce a list commas to separate items in a list and to mark phrases or clauses semi-colons to mark heavier boundaries between main clauses, or to separate words or phrases in a complex list apostrophes to indicate contracted forms or possession inverted commas to indicate direct speech ellipsis to indicate omitted words or for dramatic or rhetorical effect brackets, dashes or commas to indicate parenthesis See verb. Modal verb See verb.

12 12 Glossary of terms Nominalisation Nominalisation is the process of turning words from other word classes into nouns e.g. the charity walk The verb to walk has been nominalised to the noun walk. A word that can function as both a noun and a verb (in its present participle form) is also sometimes known as a gerund, e.g. painting, barking. Nominalisation is often used in more formal writing, which calls for an impersonal, academic style. Non-standard English Non-standard English is a variety of English that incorporates the linguistic features of a specific local dialect. It is not generally used in formal speech and writing, except in informal dialogue. It may be linked to a region, but can be spoken with any accent. Noun Noun phrase A noun is often defined as the name given to a person, place or thing. Typically, these are physical entities that can be seen, touched, smelt, tasted or heard. There are different groups of nouns, e.g. A proper noun is the name of a specific person, place or thing, e.g. Snow White, France, Wednesday. It always begins with a capital letter no matter where it occurs in a sentence. A common noun identifies a person, place or thing more generically, e.g. children, restaurant, apple. Nouns may also be classified as concrete, abstract or collective: A concrete noun refers to objects that exist physically, e.g. clock, pens, dog. An abstract noun names a thing such as a feeling, quality or concept that has no physical form, e.g. sorrow, courage, freedom. A collective noun refers to a group of people, animals or things, e.g. family, team, herd. A noun phrase typically consists of a noun that is modified by other words such as articles, adjectives, additional nouns or preposition phrases, e.g. The shed The blue shed The blue garden shed The blue garden shed behind the rose bushes

13 Key Stage 2 English grammar, punctuation and spelling 13 Object Passive voice Personal pronoun The object is a noun that refers to a person or thing, other than the subject, which is involved in or affected by the action of a verb. The verb s object normally follows it, e.g. He ate the tomato. We liked her. Verbs expressed in the passive voice (unlike the more common active voice alternative) transform the active object into the subject. The subject is the recipient (rather than the agent) of the action, e.g. The door was closed by the girl. The ball of wool was unravelled by the kitten. The pane of glass has been smashed by Lisa. The verb to be is followed by the past participle (see verb) form of the verb, e.g. The door was closed by the girl. The ball of wool was unravelled by the kitten. The pane of glass has been smashed by Lisa. The by phrase indicates the active subject. Its use is optional (omission is sometimes desirable if the intention is to hide the person responsible for the action), e.g. The door was closed. The ball of wool was unravelled. The pane of glass has been smashed. See pronoun. Phrase Possessive determiner A phrase is a group of words that are grammatically connected. Phrases are classified according to the word they expand, e.g. noun phrase the blue garden shed preposition phrase through the window complex verb phrase has been working See pronoun.

14 14 Glossary of terms Possessive pronoun See pronoun. Prefix Preposition A prefix is a letter or string of letters which is added to the beginning of a root word in order to modify or change its meaning, e.g. appear / disappear take / retake / undertake A preposition indicates a relationship, often in time or space, between nouns or noun phrases and other parts of the clause, e.g. across, in, at, under, with, of. A preposition typically introduces a preposition phrase, e.g. The woman in the red dress was playing the piano. The blue garden shed behind the rose bushes was empty. Preposition phrases usually modify verbs (as adverbials) or nouns, e.g. The bowl of fruit stood on the table. (adverbial) Collect the parcel from the house over the road. (adverbial) Collect the parcel from the house over the road. (noun modifier) Since auditioning for the play, she has grown in confidence. (adverbial, introducing a non-finite clause) He put down his pen after the teacher told him to stop writing. (subordinating connective)

15 Key Stage 2 English grammar, punctuation and spelling 15 Pronoun Reference chain A pronoun is a word that can act as a substitute for a noun or noun phrase. Pronouns can be used in a text to avoid repetition and as points of reference to strengthen cohesion. Unlike a noun, it is difficult to modify a pronoun, e.g. A sparkling river cannot become A sparkling it. The boy next door cannot become The he next door. For the level 6 test, children need to be aware that there are different types of pronoun, e.g. Personal pronouns indicate person, number and gender, e.g. I, me, you, she, her, he, him, it, we, us, they, them. Relative pronouns introduce a relative clause, e.g. who, whom, whose, which, that. I enjoy my swimming, which keeps me fit. The girl who won the race was very fit. Possessive pronouns express ownership, e.g. mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, one s. These can be used on their own, e.g. Mine is the red and white one. The blue one might be theirs. There are also possessive determiners (sometimes confused with possessive pronouns), which are easily identifiable since they must be followed by the noun to which are they linked, e.g. Look in her book. Our favourite meal is pasta. Interrogative pronouns introduce questions, e.g. who, when, how. Who did it? What are you doing? See cohesive device.

16 16 Glossary of terms Relative clause Relative pronoun A relative clause is a type of subordinate clause that makes the meaning of the noun more specific. It is introduced by a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that). There are two types of relative clause: non-defining (or nonrestrictive) clauses and defining (or restrictive) clauses. My brother, who lives in France, drives a blue van. (Nondefining the fact that my brother lives in France is simply additional information.) My brother who lives in France drives a blue van. (Defining relating specifically to a particular brother who lives in France.) See pronoun. Rhetorical device Roots of words and derivations A rhetorical device is associated with language intended to persuade or impress, typically in order to create a particular effect on the reader or audience. A commonly used rhetorical device is a rhetorical question, which is posed for deliberate effect and does not require an answer. Why do I bother? Will you ever remember to hang up your coat? Who needs to know about that? A root word is the part of the word that contains its original meaning. Derivation is the process by which new words are formed from a root word to give related words different meanings and/or to show that they belong to different word classes. It is achieved by changing the shape of the root word or base, e.g. song from sing, or by adding a prefix or suffix, e.g. discovery, uncover, recover from cover. Many words are derived from Greek or Latin roots, e.g. bio for life in biography, biology, autobiography.

17 Key Stage 2 English grammar, punctuation and spelling 17 Sentence Singular and plural A sentence consists of a group of words that work together to create meaning, and that are grammatically separate from neighbouring sentences. A sentence typically consists of clauses, including at least one main clause. It is demarcated by a capital letter at the start and by some form of end punctuation, e.g. full stop, question mark, exclamation mark or ellipsis. There are different types of sentences: A statement gives information and normally has the subject before the verb, e.g. It rained heavily on Wednesday night. A question normally asks for information and is signalled grammatically by: its subject following an auxiliary verb, e.g. Are you ready? an interrogative pronoun, e.g. What happened? A command is a sentence that directs someone or something to do something. It uses the imperative form of the verb, e.g. Turn that radio off now. Sentences can have different grammatical structures: A single-clause sentence consists of a single main clause, e.g. The dog barked. Jake won the egg and spoon race. The teacher with the shiny red sports car drove slowly out of the school car park on the last day of term. A multi-clause sentence consists of at least one main clause and any number of subordinate clauses, e.g. While we were playing tennis, I tripped and sprained my ankle. Ron cycled down the hill; he didn t see the pothole in the road. Most nouns have a singular and a plural form, signalling the difference between one or more than one person, thing etc. Many nouns can be changed to their plural form by adding an -s ending, e.g. bird / birds lily / lilies Some nouns have an irregular plural form: foot / feet louse / lice leaf / leaves Some nouns have the same form whether singular or plural: one sheep / several sheep one species / several species

18 18 Glossary of terms Standard English Subject Subject-verb agreement Subordinating connective This is the variety of the English language that is generally used for formal purposes in speech and writing. It is not the English of any particular region and it can be spoken with any accent. The subject is the noun, pronoun or noun phrase that stands before a verb, and which is involved in subject-verb agreement. It normally expresses the do-er or be-er of the verb, e.g. We were going shopping. Zak is tired. If the verb is in the present tense, it agrees (in standard English) with the subject, e.g. she plays (not she play) they play (not they plays) In the past tense, subject-verb agreement is only found in the verb to be, e.g. She was playing / they are playing I laughed / the girls laughed See connective. Suffix Synonym A suffix is a letter or string of letters that is added to the end of a root word in order to modify or change its meaning. Suffixes are used in inflections (e.g. walked, birds) and also in deriving new words, often with a change of word class, e.g. teach / teacher (changes verb into noun) terror / terrorise (changes noun into verb) beauty / beautiful (changes noun into adjective) Two words are synonyms if they have the same meaning or similar meanings, e.g. pointed may be synonymous with sharp, tapered, jagged or with cutting, biting, caustic, depending on context. Syntax The grammatical rules that determine the arrangement of words in phrases, clauses and sentences are known as syntax.

19 Key Stage 2 English grammar, punctuation and spelling 19 Temporal connective See connective. Tense Tense agreement Verb Tense indicates the relationship between the form of a verb and the time reference of the action, event or process it expresses, e.g. They ran down the road. (past tense) She walks to school most days. (present tense) Tense agreement means consistency of tense, e.g. They ran down the road and bought an ice cream. She walks to school most days but catches the bus every Friday. A verb is a word that can be inflected for tense and expresses an action, an event, a process, a sensation or a state of being, e.g. They crossed the river. The bell rang loudly. The staff made a decision. He worried about his homework. I am very good at mathematics. There are three main types of verb: Lexical verbs are sometimes referred to as main, full or content verbs. They are not dependent for their meaning on other verbs, e.g. speak, accept, discover. Auxiliary verbs (be, do, have) are sometimes referred to as helping verbs because they can assist, modify or refine another verb. Modal verbs are a type of auxiliary verb that expresses degrees of possibility, probability and certainty. The core modal verbs are: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must.

20 20 Glossary of terms Verb inflection Word class Word families Most verbs can occur in different inflections: The infinitive has no tense and is often preceded by to, e.g. to appear, to sign. The present plural looks like the infinitive except in the verb to be, e.g. they are, they sign. The present singular is normally formed by adding -s to the base form, e.g. Claire grabs the ball and shoots at the goal (but: Ali is tall and has brown eyes). The past tense is normally formed by adding -ed to the base form (e.g. We played hockey) but many common verbs have irregular forms (e.g. I caught several fish and I was happy). The past participle (see finite and non-finite) normally has the same form as the past tense (e.g. I have finished; the form was signed by the headteacher); but in many common irregular verbs it is different (e.g. We have been away, and our milk was stolen). The present participle is always formed by adding -ing to the base form, e.g. He was being naughty. He was caught stealing. Anyone making a noise will be punished. The term word class refers to a group of words that can perform a similar function, e.g. nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions. Some words can belong to more than one class, depending on the context in which they are used, e.g. I hope to sail round the world next year. (verb) My boat has a blue sail. (noun) Word families consist of groups of words that share a common root, e.g. act, action, react, reaction, activate.

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22 About this publication Who is it for? The teaching community and those interested in the terms used in the English grammar, punctuation and spelling test. What does it cover? A glossary of terms related to the English grammar, punctuation and spelling tests. Related information Visit the Department for Education s website at for all related information. For more copies Printed copies of this publication are not available. It can be downloaded from the Department s website at