LANDFILL GAS EMISSIONS FROM LANDFILLS IN SANTIAGO DE CHILE -

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1 LANDFILL GAS EMISSIONS FROM LANDFILLS IN SANTIAGO DE CHILE - STRATEGIES TO REDUCE IMPACT ON LOCAL ENVIRONMENT AS WELL AS ON GLOBAL CLIMATE Abstract Braeutigam, K.-R. * ; Gonzalez, T.; Seifert, H. Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, POB 3640, D Karlsruhe, Germany Vogdt, J. Ingeniería Alemana S.A., Av. Antonio Varas 2700, Ñuñoa, Santiago de Chile, Chile Wens, B. RWTH Aachen University, Wüllnerstraße 2, D Aachen, Germany Treatment of MSW in Santiago de Chile is limited mostly to final disposal at landfills, without any previous biological or thermal treatment, nor any recovery of biomass. Due to the decomposition of the organic fraction of MSW leachate is produced, as well as landfill gas, which contributes to global warming, local air pollution, odour and nuisance and increases the risk of fires, explosions and potential exposure of workers to toxic emissions. Landfill gas emissions and their associated impacts can either be mitigated by collecting the gas from the landfill to be burned or used as a fuel source; however less than 50 % of the generated landfill gas is collected. On the other side minimizing the amount of organic material disposed of at landfills would not only reduce the production of landfill gas, but in addition mitigate most of the more notorious environmental and social impacts of current waste management practices. In this paper existing and potential CDM activities for landfills in Santiago de Chile are described. In addition different scenarios, including the capture and flaring of landfill gas, as well as the separate collection and composting of different shares of the organic fraction are defined. These scenarios are evaluated with respect to their impact on reducing landfill gas emissions. Palabras Clave: recolección segregada, relleno sanitario, emisiones atmosféricas, gases de invernadero, modelación 1. The investigation project Risk Habitat Megacity Urbanization is one of the most dramatic processes of global change. Particularly in megaurban regions, it induces trends with both regional and global consequences that are not yet well understood. Mega-urbanization is not just connected with unprecedented growth, high population density, and a concentration of economic and political power, but also with a complex variety of simultaneous and interacting processes. They turn the urban habitat into a space of both risk and opportunity. A research initiative of the German Helmholtz-Association, which started in 2007 [1], analyzes mature megacities in Latin America, one of the most urbanized regions in the world. Its large agglomerations are of crucial socio-economic importance for the entire continent. At the same time, urbanization in this region is about to reach a new dimension. Subject of the first case study is the Metropolitan Region of Santiago de Chile (MRS), one of the most centralized urban centres of Latin America (with respect to total population and surface). Like other * Correspondence: braeutigam@itas.fzk.de 1

2 Latin-American urban centres, this agglomeration suffers from typical megacity problems and offers the scope to uncover emerging trends. Santiago de Chile offers an excellent research infrastructure and research partners with international recognition. From Santiago, the project will be extended to other megacities in Latin America. The investigation initiative will: contribute to the specification of sustainability objectives for the future development of megacities; assess characteristic risks, their driving factors and consequences in megacities; design strategies and instruments for risk management as key tools for sustainable urban development; develop implementation solutions that take into account the institutional, political, economic, and social aspects within megacities; build a platform for continuous learning and application in order to integrate academic research and practice. The analytical framework of the initiative is innovative due to its integrative and interdisciplinary character, which allows scientists and policy makers to deepen the understanding of megacities as a system. The sustainable development concept serves to formulate the target dimension of the project. The risk concept assists in identifying problems and evaluating their relevance, while the governance concept focuses on the actors and options for managing megacities. Within the project these three analytical concepts are applied to various application fields, which are considered significant for the megacity investigation-concept. Figure 1 gives an overview of the project structure and shows the different fields of application that will be analysed in detail with respect to sustainability, risk and governance. As already mentioned the work within Risk Habitat Megacity will among other specific objectives contribute to the definition of sustainability goals for the future development of waste management in Santiago de Chile. In order to evaluate waste management with respect to sustainability criteria, different sustainability indicators have been worked out [2], including the following: specific waste arisings (kg/(person*day)) amount of pre-treated waste that is sent to adequate landfills in relation to total waste arising greenhouse gases (landfill gases) emitted due to waste management (CO 2 -equivalents per person and year) In addition, the investigation will contribute to design and evaluate strategies for a more sustainable development within the field of waste management. Keeping this in mind, the elaboration will concentrate on the following topics: overview of the actual situation of waste management in Santiago de Chile ( status quo ); compilation of different scenarios for the future development of waste management in Santiago de Chile, taking into consideration the separate collection of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste; model calculations of greenhouse gas emissions for these scenarios and evaluation of the results of these scenarios 2

3 Local Stakeholders Risk Habitat Megacity Scientific Advisory Board Programme Coordinator Programme Steering Group Development and Dissemination of Knowledge Cross-Cutting Concept: Sustainable Development Cross-Cutting Concept: Risk Cross-Cutting Concept: Governance Land - use management Socio-spatial differentiation Energy system Transportation Air quality and health Water resources and services Waste management Methods Indicators Toolkits Scenarios Capacity Building Scientific training Training of practitioners Workshops Figure 1: Project structure of Risk Habitat Megacity 2. Waste management in Santiago de Chile In Santiago de Chile the amount of municipal solid waste (MSW) produced increased from about 0.7 kg/(person*day) in 1990 to about 1.3 kg/(person*day) in 2008, with an estimated total generation of nearly 3 million tons/year. Although the composition of MSW has changed and the organic fraction decreased from about 68 % in 1990 to about 54 % in 2004, biomass still remains the most important waste fraction (more than 1.5 million tons per year) [3, 4, 5]. Treatment of MSW in the MRS is limited mostly to final disposal, without any previous biological or thermal treatment or recovery of biomass. There are three relatively new landfills operating in the MRS, which receive approximately 90 % of MSW. The rest of the urban waste is either recycled, mainly as an informal activity or deposited at illegal dumping sites. Santa Marta landfill is one of three existing landfill sites in operation and one of the most important in the region. Operation started in 2002 and Consorcio Santa Marta will continue landfilling until 2022, the year when the contract ends. The designated amount of waste to be deposited is 60,000 tons per month. The total amount of waste disposed of at Santa Marta Landfill until the end of 2008 was about 4.7 million tons. The waste collected is firstly brought to a transfer station and subsequently transported with special containers to the landfill. Landfill gas is flared by three flare stacks [6, 7]. Lomas Los Colorados, the biggest of the currently operating landfills is situated about 60 km north of Santiago. It began accepting waste in 1996 and since 2003 waste is transported by train to the landfill from a transfer station. At the moment the landfill input is at a rate of about 150,000 tons of waste per month. The current contract will end in However, it is automatically renewed for 16 years if none of the parties cancel the contract not later than August The landfill, which is operated by KDM, a Latin American company 3

4 specialized in solid waste management, is anticipated to reach the end of its capacity around Landfill gas is collected and flared [8]. Due to KDM [9] energetic utilization of landfill gas will start in July Santiago Poniente is the newest of the three landfills. It started operation in October 2002 and exhibits a current filling rate of about 45,000 tons per month. The landfill is anticipated to reach final capacity around Waste is transported directly to Santiago Poniente (without a transfer station) [7]. Proactiva, the operating company, has recently received the environmental authorization for the capture of landfill-gas, treatment and utilization in the gas system. There are several old landfills in Santiago, which reached their end of exploitation life span several years ago, however still are producing landfill gas, therefore post-operative treatment is necessary. One of the first sanitary landfill for urban residues, La Feria, started its operation in 1977 and received 60% of the solid residues from the city of Santiago at that time. In 1978 the landfill Cerros de Renca started its operation, receiving 30 % of the residues a third sanitary landfill called Lepanto began operation receiving the remaining 10 % of the residues. In 1984 La Feria reached its end of lifetime and was replaced by Lo Errazuriz, which in turn was replaced partly by Lomas Los Colorados in 1997 and partly by Lepanto, which operated for the majority of municipalities in the south of Santiago until 2001 [10]. 3. CDM-activities for landfills in Santiago Chile has no specific laws setting down the degree of biogas collection required in a sanitary landfill, except for venting to avoid the hazardous storage of gases; so practically all of the projects for landfill capture, efficient destruction or utilization have been implemented as clean development mechanism (CDM) measures. Due to the decomposition of the organic fraction of MSW landfill not only leachate but biogas is produced, contributing to global warming, local air pollution, odour, and nuisance. Due to the potential for landfill gas migration, which can infiltrate zones outside of the landfill s boundaries, it might pose dangers to the surrounding population and structures and might increase the risk of fires, explosions and potential exposure of workers to toxic emissions. Landfill gas emissions and their associated impacts can be mitigated by collecting the gas from the landfill, either burning it in flares or using it as a fuel source for energy generation. On the other side minimizing the amount of organic material disposed of at landfills - either by separate collection of this fraction or by mechanical-biological pre-treatment of the mixed waste - would not only reduce the production of landfill gas more effectively, but in addition mitigate most of the more notorious environmental and social impacts of current waste management practices (odours, presence of sanitary vectors). Furthermore, mitigating landfill gas emissions can be encouraged economically by the generation of CO 2 certificates in the frame of the Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM). CDM was established under Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol adopted by the Third Conference of the Parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change on December 11, 1997 [11]. The dual goals of the CDM are to promote sustainable development in developing countries and, at the same time, allow industrialized countries to earn emissions credits from their investments in emission-reducing projects in developing countries. To earn credits under the CDM, the project proponent must prove and have verified that the greenhouse gas emissions reductions are real, measurable and additionally demonstrate would have occurred in the absence of the project. In the following some project designs for CDM activities in the field of landfill gas emissions will be described shortly. 4

5 3.1 Santa Marta Landfill Gas Capture Project The project will last 16 years, from 2007 to The purpose is to install a highly efficient landfill gas collection system. This will involve investing in a gas collection system, airtight covering of the landfill and flaring equipment. At the initial stage of the project, no electricity will be generated from the collected biogas. This is due to high investment costs in power generation equipment and grid connection and the current low price of electricity. Another reason is the uncertainty and the variation in the actual production of biogas. The feasibility of electricity generation will be revised every three years once the project is fully operating. The expected efficiency of the capture system will be at least 65 %; however these are values which have not yet been proven under practical operation conditions. The baseline emissions until 2022 are estimated at 751,751 tons CO 2 -equivalents. Total burning of methane due to the project was estimated at 6,712,426 tons CO 2 -equivalents [6]. 3.2 Landfill Lomas Los Colorados (gas collection and flaring resp. electricity generation) The objective of Lomas Los Colorados Landfill Gas Project is to develop a landfill gas collection and utilization system. Up to now this involves only the operating a system for landfill gas collection and flaring; however since July 2009 some of the landfill gas collected is to be put to energy use, the generation of electricity for use at the landfill site and for sale to users elsewhere. Other possible energy applications for landfill gas include use as a fuel at an industry off-site, or purification and injection into a natural gas pipeline. (see chapter 3.3). Estimated emission reductions will be about 4 million tons of CO 2 -equivalents in the period 2007 to 2014 [8]. 3.3 Landfill Lomas Los Colorados (injection of landfill gas into the natural gas grid) The project activity will inject landfill gas now flared to the metropolitan gas grid, displacing the use of natural gas. However, before biogas is fed into the distribution grid, it has to be treated in an upgrading facility, where most of the non-methane gases will be removed from the stream to meet the sales specifications of Metrogas S.A. It is expected that an average of 70 million m 3 of biogas per year can be injected to the distribution grid in the first 7-year crediting period, avoiding the consumption of an average of 37 million m 3 of natural gas per year. The emission reductions estimated for the first 7-year crediting period are more than 420,000 tons CO 2 -equivalents [12]. 3.4 Lepanto Landfill Gas Management Project The purpose of the project at this landfill (which was closed in 2002) is to develop works and equipment to capture and destroy the methane produced by the Lepanto Landfill using a highly efficient controlled flaring system. The basic objectives of the project include an improvement in the existing impermeabilization system, the implementation of new biogas extraction wells and a conveyance piping system, assisted by suction and pressure pumps, to carry the biogas to a treatment plant where it will be flared. The plant will be capable of treating a maximum flow of 5,000 m 3 /hr (an average of 2,700 m 3 /hr is expected). In the future the project might also include the generation of electrical or thermal energy, however, this is not a current proposal. Because of the complexity of the system and the lack 5

6 of experience in this type of project in Chile, it is commercially not attractive and difficult to implement. Nevertheless both possibilities are under evaluation [13]. 4. The situation in Europe and in Germany Diverting waste from landfill is an important element in EU policy on improving the use of resources and reducing the environmental impacts of waste management. In particular, in pursuance of the Landfill Directive (Directive 1999/31/EC) on landfill of waste, Member States are obliged to set up national strategies for reducing the amount of biodegradable municipal waste being landfilled: to 75 % of the total amount of biodegradable municipal waste generated in 1995 by 2006; to 50 % of 1995 levels by 2009; to 35 % of 1995 levels by Member States who landfilled more than 80 % of their municipal waste in 1995 can apply for a prolongation of the time limits not exceeding four years [14]. Regarding the emissions of green-house gases, waste management contributed to 2.6 % of total green house gas emissions in the EU-15 [15]. The German strategy on biodegradable waste has focused on separate collection and recycling of secondary raw materials (paper and biowaste) and mechanical-biological treatment or dedicated incineration, combined with energy recovery of mixed household waste. Although a landfill ban was adopted in 1993, initially it was not implemented properly due to several loopholes, which were closed by the Waste Landfilling Ordinance (2001), confirming the deadline of 1 June 2005 for implementing the landfill ban. Final disposal at landfills is now limited to waste with an organic content of not more than 3 %. Additionally special limit values for the organic content of waste that has undergone mechanical-biological treatment were introduced. Since the deadline, the amount of municipal waste landfilled has fallen to 1 % [14]. Due to the landfill ban for the organic fraction of waste since 2005, the amount of waste deposited after 2005 will not contribute to the emissions of landfill gas. Therefore the emissions of landfill gas will be determined by the amount of waste which was deposited before Figure 2 shows the estimated emissions of methane from German landfills for the time period 1990 to The emissions decreased from about 1.7 million tons in 1990 to about 0.4 million tons in 2007 and will further decrease to about 0.17 million tons in 2020 [16]. 6

7 emissions of methane (million tons per year) Figure 2: Calculated emissions of methane from landfills in Germany (according to [16]) 5. Compilation of scenarios for waste management in Santiago de Chile, taking into consideration the separate collection of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste 5.1 Methodology In order to set up and evaluate different scenarios for waste management in Santiago de Chile a set of data and boundary conditions has to be defined. Time horizon Due to the fact that one of the three landfills in Santiago de Chile Santa Marta landfill which started its operation in 2002, will continue land filling only until 2022, model calculations will take into consideration the time span from 2001 to Population development The last census in Chile, which was performed by the Instituto Nacional de Estadisticas (INE) in 2002, was taken as a basis for the population development for the time span from 2001 to 2022 [17]. The rate of population growth was also taken from [17], starting from 5,828,254 people for 2001 and resulting in a total population of 6,970,295 for Waste arising Municipal solid waste (MSW), brought to one of the three landfills in Santiago de Chile, is weighed at the entrance of the landfill. As a result, data for total MSW deposited in Santiago de Chile during the last years are available [18]. For the scenario calculations this data has to be modified, because in addition to municipal solid waste from households also waste resulting from cleaning public areas are brought to landfills and are not accounted for separately. 7

8 These amounts are not correlated with the amount of people living in Santiago and therefore cannot be taken into consideration. In order to estimate the share of waste resulting from public areas, the disposal at the landfill RS Santiago Poniente has been observed on sight over a period of 2 weeks, whereas it became clear that great parts of the waste from cleaning public areas could be identified via the type of the vehicle delivering. These amounts have been calculated and extrapolated to the whole region of the RM Santiago. The amounts for Santiago are estimated at 356,000 tons per year [7]. With the above mentioned data specific arising of municipal solid waste (kg per person and year) was calculated for the years 2001 to For the years 2008 to 2022 a constant value of 1 kg per person and year was chosen, resulting in total waste arising for the model calculations of about 1.81 million tons in 2001 and about 2.54 million tons in 2022 with a total for the time span 2001 to 2022 of about 50 million tons (s. figure 3). 2.7 estimated amount of waste produced per year (million tons) Waste composition Figure 3: Estimated amount of waste produced per year Data for waste composition were taken from a study, performed by the Universidad Catolica de Valparaiso in 2006 [19]. Within the scenario calculations separate collection was taken into account only for food waste (share of %) and garden waste (share of 12.08%). Waste characteristics Data for water content of waste and total carbon content of waste had to be taken from literature [20,21] due to lack of this information in [19]. Table 1 shows the waste characteristics, used for the model calculations: the share of the different waste fractions, their water content and the organic carbon content of the different waste fractions. In the last column, calculated values for the organic carbon content in 1 kg of MSW, resulting from the specified waste fraction is given; that means, that the contribution from food waste (residuos de alimentos) to the organic carbon content of 1 kg of MSW is 65.1 g, that of garden waste (residuos de jardín y poda) g etc. In total, in the case shown in table 1, the organic carbon content of 1 kg of 8

9 MSW amounts to g. This value will change, when different fractions of organic waste are separated and not disposed of at landfills. Table 1: Waste characteristics used for the scenario calculations fraction [18] water content [19] c org [20] c org calculated % % g/kg dry matter g/kg of total waste Residuos de alimentos Residuos de jardín y poda Papel Cartón Plástico Tetrapack Pañales y celulosas sanitarias Gomas Cueros Vidrios Metales Madera Textiles Suciedad y cenizas Pilas Huesos Cuescos Cerámicas Otros RSE Suma Compilation of scenarios Model calculations were performed for the following scenarios The total amount of waste is deposited on landfills (about 50 million tons). Different fractions of organic waste (food waste and garden waste) are separated and composted, the rest of the waste is brought to landfills. Different shares of landfill gas (10%, 30% and 65%) are captured and flared. The share of CH 4 in landfill gas is 55% by volume. The share of CO 2 in landfill gas is 45% by volume. 5.3 Calculation of greenhouse gas emissions Calculations were performed for total emissions of greenhouse gases (CH 4 and CO 2 ) for the total amount of waste deposited as well as for the total amount of waste composted (depending of the scenario taken into consideration) in the time span 2001 to Total green house gas emissions were calculated according to the formula of Tabarasan & Rettenberger [22]. G e = 1.868*c org *(0.014T +0.28) G e = total amount of gas produced in Nm 3 /ton of waste c org = organic carbon content in kg/ton of waste T= temperature within the body of the landfill in C 9

10 The following data were used for the calculations: Temperature within the landfill: 39 C Emissions of CH 4 from composting 0.65 kg/(ton of organic substance) [23] Emissions of CO 2 from composting 200 kg/(ton of organic substance) [23] Assuming a value of c org = g/kg (s. table 1) the decomposition of 1 ton of waste, specified in table 1, is producing a total amount of about 160 Nm 3 of landfill gas. During composting with an optimal oxygen supply no CH 4 will be emitted. Nevertheless it is not possible to have an optimal oxygen supply at all places and all over the time, therefore small amounts of CH 4 will be emitted during composting. In [23] data for the emissions from different composting plants were compiled and evaluated. The values chosen for the calculations in this study are taken from [23]. Secondary emissions, such as exhaust fumes from transport, emissions resulting from the operation of the landfill e.g. the composting plant, emissions resulting from energy use due to separate collection or mechanical biological treatment as well as emission reductions due to the application of compost instead of nitrogen fertilizers are not taken into consideration. When presenting the results according to the Kyoto Protocol [11], emissions of CO 2 resulting from the decomposition of organic material are not taken into consideration when calculating the CO 2 -equivalents, because CO 2 had been taken up by the plants from the atmosphere when growing. Due to the separation of different amounts of organic waste from total waste (10 % to 90 % of food waste and garden waste) the organic carbon content of 1 kg of waste, which is brought to landfills, changes. Table 2 shows the corresponding calculated values. Table 2: Calculated values for the organic carbon content of waste deposited in the different scenarios Percentage of organic waste (food waste and garden waste) separated c org calculated percentage g/kg of total waste Results of model calculations Figure 4 shows the results of the model calculations 10

11 Million tons of CO2-equivalents landfill + compost at 65% gas capture landfill + compost at 30% gas capture landfill + compost at 10% gas capture share of organic waste (food waste and garden waste) collected separately Figure 4: Calculated emissions of CO 2 -equivalents for the different scenarios for MRS Santiago In general, less than 50 % of the generated landfill gas is captured, due to the lack of cover during the first years of landfill operation, due to leaks in the cover system and inherent technical inefficiencies. In case that 65 % of landfill gas is captured and flared (which is a very optimistic assumption), CO 2 -equivalents can be reduced from 35 million tons (no separate collection of organic waste) to 17.9 million tons, e.g. half of the initial emissions, when 90 % of the organic fraction (food and garden waste) is composted. In case that 30 % of landfill gas is captured and flared, CO 2 -equivalents can be reduced from 70 million tons (no separate collection of organic waste) to 36 million tons, when 90 % of the organic fraction (food and garden waste) is composted. In case that 10 % of landfill gas is captured and flared, CO 2 -equivalents can be reduced from 90 million tons (no separate collection of organic waste) to 46 million tons, when 90 % of the organic fraction (food and garden waste) is composted. It has to be mentioned, that no energetic use of landfill gas has been considered. 7. Conclusion Collecting and flaring and/or utilizing landfill gas will improve the local environment by reducing the amount of noxious air pollution arising from the landfill, resulting in a considerable reduction of nuisance caused by the odours and also health risks associated to these emissions. In fact this results in a positive effect on health and amenity in the local area. In addition, properly collecting and destroying flammable landfill gas will reduce the risks of explosions in and around the landfill. This is particularly important as the landfill gas collection system will minimise the potential for landfill gas migration, which can infiltrate zones outside of the landfill s boundaries and pose dangers to the surrounding population and structures. 11

12 Regarding the organic fraction the results underline the importance of this fraction for the reduction of greenhouse gases. Separate treatment of the organic fraction yields, besides the reduction of greenhouse gas in economical chances. Taking in consideration that the disposal at landfills is state of the art in Chile today, the implementation of a separate collection and treatment of the biodegradable waste fractions additionally enables the chance of generating emission certificates in the frame of the Kyoto protocol. 7. References [1] Strategies for Sustainable Development in Megacities and Urban Agglomerations - A Helmholtz Research Initiative [2] Emser M. (2007) Nachhaltigkeitskriterien und -indikatoren für die Abfallwirtschaft in Deutschland. Eine Anwendung des integrativen Nachhaltigkeitskonzeptes der Helmholtz- Gemeinschaft deutscher Forschungszentren, Karlsruhe, Diploma Thesis at the Institut für Technikfolgenabschätzung und Systemanalyse des Forschungszentrums Karlsruhe [3] Reyes S. (2004) Santiago: La difícil sustentabilidad de una ciudad neoliberal. In: De Mattos, C. et al. (Eds.) Santiago en la Globalización: Una nueva Ciudad? Santiago: Colección EURE libros/ Ediciones SUR, [4] Szanto Narea M. (2006) Gestion de Residuos Solidos Domiciliarios en Santiago de Chile. Valparaíso: Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Facultad de Ingenieria, Escuela de Ingenieria en Construccion, Grupo de Residuos Solidos [5] Bräutigam K.-R., Gonzalez T., Seifert H., Szanto M., Vogdt J. (2008) Risk Habitat Megacity Waste Management in Santiago de Chile - I Simposio Iberoamericano de Ingeniería de Residuos - Castellón, de julio de 2008 [6] CDM-Executive Board; Clean Development Mechanism Project Design Document Form (CDM-PDD) Version 02 in effect as of: 1 July Santa Marta Landfill Gas (LFG) Capture Project Version 06 05/12/06 last visit [7] Wens, B. (2008) Einsparungspotenzial von Deponiegasemissionen durch die getrennte Erfassung organischer häuslicher Abfälle in der Region Metropolitana in Chile; student research project Rheinisch-Westfälische Hochschule Aachen, Fachgruppe für Rohstoffe und Entsorgungstechnik [8] CDM-Executive Board; Clean Development Mechanism Project Design Document Form (CDM-PDD) Version 02 in effect as of: 1 July Loma Los Colorados Landfill Gas Project Version December last visit [9] KDM (Keyneborn Demarco) (2009), private communication, June 2009 [10] Monreal, J.C., Management and Use of Landfill Gas in Chile, in: Organic Recovery & Biological Treatment, Proceedings of the International Conferences on Biological Treatment of Waste and the Environment (ORBIT 99) pp ; Rhombos Verlag, 1999 ISBN [11] United Nations (Publisher). Kyoto protocol to the United Nations framework convention on climate change,

13 [12] CDM-Executive Board; Clean Development Mechanism Project Design Document Form (CDM-PDD) Version 03, in effect as of: 28 July 2006, Lepanto Landfill Gas Management Project, Version 2. 04/1/ last visit [13] CDM-Executive Board; Clean Development Mechanism Project Design Document Form (CDM-PDD) Version 02, in effect as of: 1 July 2004, Metrogas - Biogas injection to the natural gas distribution grid, January 31st, last visit [14] European Environment Agency (2009) Diverting waste from landfill effectiveness of waste-management policies in the European Union; EEA Report No. 7/2009, European Environment Agency, Copenhagen [15] European Environment Agency (2007) Annual European Community greenhouse gas inventory and inventory report EEA Technical Report No 7/2007. European Environment Agency, Copenhagen [16] Butz, W. (2009) Deponien und Klimaschutz in: Trierer Berichte zur Abfallwirtschaft, Band 18; Stilllegung und Nachsorge von Deponien 2009 Schwerpunkt Deponiegas pp 13-21; Rettenberger/Stegmann (Publisher) [17] INE - Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas. last visit [18] Secretaría Regional Ministerial de Salud, Región Metropolitana. last visit [19] Universidad Catolica de Valparaiso (Publisher) (2006). Estudio Caracterización de Residuos Sólidos Domiciliarios en la Región Metropolitana. [20] Bayerisches Landesamt für Umweltschutz (Publisher) (2003). Zusammensetzung und Schadstoffgehalt von Siedlungsabfällen, p. 78, ISBN [21] Rolland, C., Scheibengraf M. (2003) Biologisch abbaubarer Kohlenstoff im Restmüll, ISBN [22] Tabasaran, O., Rettenberger, G. (1987) Grundlagen zur Planung von Entgasungsanlagen. in: Hösel, Schenkel, Schurer (Publisher). Müll-Handbuch. E. Schmidt, Berlin, Bd. 3. [23] Cuhls, C., Mähl, B., Berkau, S., Clemens, J. (2008) Ermittlung der Emissionssituation bei der Verwertung von Bioabfällen. Ingenieurgesellschaft für Wissenstransfer mbh gewittra Studie im Auftrag des Umweltbundesamtes, Förderkennzeichen , Umweltbundesamt. Dezember