Possible Lines of Approach

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1 Beowulf Possible Lines of Approach Beowulf as heroic epic Beowulf and traditional roles Beowulf and the blending of Christian and pagan elements Monsters vs. monstrous behavior in Beowulf Beowulf and community values and legal issues Beowulf and lineage Digressions within Beowulf Comparisons/Connections Notes on Particular Sections/Features Key Literary Features of Beowulf Approaches to Particular Sections Questions for Discussion Possible Lines of Approach Beowulf as heroic epic Define epic and consider the functions of epic in a culture, and then compare the generic qualities of classical epics to those of Beowulf. Compare the prologue of Beowulf to that of classical epics such The Odyssey or The Iliad. Discuss how Beowulf fits the definition of a hero. Examine the combination of historical and fictitious elements in Beowulf. Look at the heroic code as it is presented in the text and compare it to heroic codes in Judith, The Dream of the Rood, The Battle of Maldon, or The Wanderer. Beowulf and traditional roles Consider how the text establishes positive and negative examples of man and woman as well as king, queen, and warrior. Consider how names within Beowulf may further understanding of roles e.g., Heorot, Beowulf, Hrothgar, Wealhtheow, Heremod, Hygd. Compare this use of names to that in Judith, The Dream of the Rood, The Wanderer, The Seafarer, The Wife s Lament, The Cotton Maxims, The Exeter Book Riddles, The Battle of Maldon. Beowulf and the blending of Christian and pagan elements This blending raises questions of authorship, authorial motivation, and date of composition. Compare Beowulf, a pagan storyline infused with Judeo-Christian elements, to Judith, an Old Testament text infused with pagan elements. Look at which elements of the poem are decidedly pagan and which are Christian. Compare clearly Christian characters (Hrothgar) to more ambiguous ones (Beowulf), and consider the ambiguity of epithets and references to God. Look at

2 how many references could also apply to Odin, and how they appeal to a warrior culture. Discuss the afterlife of characters. Discuss the role of wyrd ( fate ). Discuss the Christian sin of pride vs. the warrior s desire for glory. How does the poem s end serve to signal the end of pagan religion and culture? Monsters vs. monstrous behavior in Beowulf Establish the lineage of Grendel and Grendel s mother, and evaluate physical descriptions of Grendel and his mother for possible ambiguity on whether they are literal or figurative monsters. Compare descriptions of the home of Grendel and his mother to the homes of Heorot. Determine how the text defines monstrous behavior and compare Grendel s behavior with that of his mother; consider also the behavior of Heremod and Thryth; compare to the behavior of Holofernes in Judith. Compare the poet s narration of Beowulf s slaying of Grendel and Grendel s mother to Beowulf s retelling of these slayings when he returns home. Beowulf and community values and legal issues Look at the mead-hall as a reflection of the state of the community (see also Judith). Look at the role of feasting. Examine implied or stated contracts between various members of society, including the implied contract between king and thane (a warrior in service to a leader) and the loyalty owed by a thane to a leader and to the members of the comitatus. Look at the the use of one s word as bond (oral contracts, importance to reputation) and at boasting as a kind of promise that must be upheld. Notice the role of wergild ( man-gold ) as compensation for wrongful death (i.e., an attempt to minimize blood-feuds begun by the kin of the slain in revenge) and the legal difference between murder (refusal to pay wergild) and manslaughter (slaying of a person is compensated). Notice also the attempts to end blood feuds through marriage. Look at the most heinous crimes and how they are punished (i.e., by exile from the community). Compare the sorrow of exile with that depicted in The Wanderer. Examine attitudes toward kinslayers (Unferth). Beowulf and lineage Germanic epics and sagas tend to begin with a genealogy, thus Beowulf begins with the story of Scyld Scefing. Inheritance and bloodlines are patrilineal; this is emphasized through the use of epithets (e.g., Shield, Son of Sheaf). Look at what else is inherited: for example, Beowulf inherits his father s obligation to Hrothgar; Grendel is descended from Cain, a kinslayer. Beowulf lacks progeny, thus leaves the kingdom without an heir. What are the implications of this?

3 Digressions within Beowulf Digressions are a generic component of epics. Look at how they function as a part of oral literature e.g., as part of the unique entertainment provided by the scop as well as the role they serve in the narrative. Digressions may act as foreshadowing (the story of Sigemund, Hildeburh) or admonition/advice (the stories of Heremod, Thryth) Comparisons/Connections Historical matter: Bede s The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Religious matter: Bede s The Ecclesiastical History of the English People, Ælfric s The Passion of Saint Edmund, Wulfstan s Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, Blickling Homilies. Poetic works: Judith (found in same manuscript as Beowulf), The Exeter Book Elegies, The Dream of the Rood, The Cotton Maxims, The Exeter Book Riddles, The Battle of Maldon. Notes on Particular Sections/Features Form: A long heroic poem arguably an epic of 3182 lines written in alliterative verse. Old English poetry is written in alliterative verse, which is common for poems composed in Old Norse, Old Saxon, and Old High German; rhyming poems are scarce. Structure: The poem is divided into 44 numbered sections in the manuscript. The first approximately 2200 lines are dedicated to Beowulf s youthful exploits, including the slayings of Grendel and Grendel s mother. After informing us that 50 years have passed, the remaining third of the poem details Beowulf s death as a result of his fight with the dragon. Composition/Authorship: The poem Beowulf survives in only one manuscript, Cotton Vitellius A. xv, which also includes the heroic poem Judith, an Old Testament tale reworked in Old English; a prose life of St. Christopher, the patron saint of travelers; and The Wonders of the East and Alexander s Letter to Aristotle, two prose works describing the marvels encountered by the narrator while traveling in the Orient. The date of the manuscript is c.1000, though the composition of Beowulf may date from c.700 c The poem is set in Scandinavia during geardagum ( days of yore ) and includes historical characters (Hrothgar, Heremod, Hygelac). Based on the historicity of Hygelac, the events of the poem may have taken place in the late sixth century. Scholars are divided on the issue of Beowulf s composition, with some insisting on its being part of oral tradition and others arguing for a single author who may have imitated the style of older Germanic heroic poetry. The method of composition may have implications for the date of its composition (if a single author, then most likely the date of composition is contemporaneous with that of the manuscript) and for the purpose of its creation.

4 If Beowulf is the product of oral tradition, then rather than memorizing the entire poem, the scop (poet-performer, pronounced shoap to rhyme with soap ) would have extemporaneously stitched the poem together by drawing from his knowledge of traditional tales, as well as from a vast repertoire of recurring motifs and memorized phrases (called formulas) that fit the metrical scheme of the poem. At some point, someone would have eventually written down the poem and thus given the defined shape as it exists in the manuscript. The scop would have sung or chanted the poem before his audience. See lines and for references to a scop. Regardless of the method of its composition, Beowulf exhibits poetic elements generally found in orally composed narratives (such as formulas) and its performative and oral/aural nature is emphasized throughout, starting with its first word, Hwæt ( Listen! or Hark! ). Key Literary Features of Beowulf Alliteration. A typical Old English metrical line consists of two half-lines separated by a caesura. Each half-line contains two stresses of which either/both the first and second stress must alliterate with the third. The fourth stress of the line does not alliterate with the others. Consider the following lines from Beowulf: Swa sceal geong guma gode gewyrcan, 20 Fromum feoh-giftum on fæder bearme, 21 In line 20, although it may appear that swa and sceal alliterate, they do not because they begin with different sounds: the s in swa is an s sound like in the Middle English swallow and the sc in sceal is pronounced sh as in the word shall, its cognate in Middle English. The next three words in line 20 do alliterate, despite that the g in geong is pronounced like the y in its Middle English cognate young, but the g in guma and gode are both pronounced like the g in the Middle English good. Since the ge in gewyrcan is a verbal prefix (much like the re in the Middle English rework ), it cannot count as part of the alliterative sequence. In line 21, the f at the beginning of the words fromum and feoh-giftum on the first half-line and the f in fæder in the second half-line alliterate. Although Liuzza s translation does incorporate use of alliteration, it does not necessarily correspond to how it appears in Beowulf. Formula. A formula, according to the OED, is a set form of words in which something is defined, stated, or declared, or which is prescribed by authority or custom to be used on some ceremonial occasion. In oral poetry, a formula is a conventional phrase used as a transition or description to fill the meter, to give the oral poet time to compose or recall the coming lines, and to communicate the structure of a story to an audience through repetition. The rosy-red fingers of the Dawn is a formulaic phrase employed in The

5 Odyssey and deliberately echoed by Virgil in The Aeneid. In Beowulf the scop often introduces a character s speech by stating the character s name, followed by an epithet e.g., Beowulf spoke, son of Ecgtheow (529, 631, 957, 1383, 1473, etc.) or Hrothgar spoke, protector of the Scyldings (371, 456, 1321). Epithet. An epithet is a descriptive word or phrase associated with a figure often, but not always, accompanying their name and sometimes in lieu of the name used by an oral poet to fill the meter of a poetic line. General examples include Alexander the Great and Ol Blue Eyes (for Frank Sinatra). Examples from Beowulf include Spear- Danes (2), Scyld Scefing ( Shield, son of Sheaf, 4), Lord of Life and Wielder of Glory (God, 16-17), mighty stalker of the marshes (Grendel, 103), joy giver of the Geatish people (Beowulf, 2900). Kenning. This is a type of compounded phrase, made up of two unrelated elements, that is cryptic and metaphoric in nature. Although a talented scop may create his own kennings, many would have been stock phrases. Examples include whale s-riding (the sea, 10), wave-crosser (ship, 199), word-hoard (mouth, capacity for speech, 259), battle-runes (ill-thoughts, 501). The names of some of the characters are also kennings. For instance, Beowulf s name consists of beo ( bee ) + wulf ( wolf ) and means bear. Note that a kenning is a specific type of compound a new word created by combining two others but that not all compounds found in Beowulf are kennings. Compounds may be formulaic, may be used to meets the demands of the meter or the alliteration, or may be used to describe a repeated element in a poetic fashion. For example, in line 4, meadbench is both a compound and an example of synecdoche, but it is not a kenning. Motif. A motif is a repeated story element, such as the scene of heroes putting on their gear before going to battle, or the giving of rewards to a warrior by a king. Variation. The repetition, utilizing different language, of a sentence element to aid in maintaining the metrical scheme is called variation. For example, the epithets Lord of Life and Wielder of Glory are repeated one after the other in lines and both refer to God. There is variation in the lines he should order a hall-building, have men make a great mead-house (69-70). Digression. A digression is a break in the main storyline that may describe, in what might seem to us to be over-elaborate detail, the history of various props (such as a scepter or a weapon) or the ancestry of a warrior, or that may tell a story within a story that will enhance themes in the main storyline. The stories of Sigemund the Dragonslayer ( ), Hildeburh ( ), Heremod ( ), and Thryth ( ) are each digressions that either foreshadow events to come or serve a didactic purpose. Approaches to Particular Sections The prologue: The narrator opens with the instruction for its audience to Listen! The next three lines emphasize the oral/aural nature of the poem and reminds the audience of

6 other tales told about the Danes and of the fame of those noble lords [who] did noble deeds. In doing so, the poet establishes one of the main themes of the poem: the importance of reputation and the desire for fame. The last line of the poem the description of Beowulf as being the most eager for fame echoes this opening. After beginning thus, the poet provides Hrothgar s genealogy, a convention found in many medieval Germanic heroic narratives. Lines detail the qualities a future king should have: he should be generous in giving rewards so that his warriors will be loyal to him in times of war, and he should behave in ways that will be praised by his people. Consider which characters (or character roles) demonstrate generosity and/or loyalty (including loyalty to comrades, to leaders, to kith and kin, and in a more abstract sense to vows and oaths), and which perform deeds established by the text as praiseworthy. We can see that there is an implied contract between a war-leader and his warriors: a leader should reward those warriors who battle on his behalf, and in exchange, a warrior pledges his loyalty and his sword to his leader. This contract will be significant in the interactions between Hrothgar and Beowulf, in the advice Hrothgar gives to Beowulf via Heremod s story, in Wealtheow s speech, in Beowulf s behavior when he returns home to Geatland, and in the actions of Beowulf s thanes during his battle with the dragon. The remainder of the prologue describes the traditional (and pagan) burial of a king. Scyld, who passed away at his appointed hour, is placed on his ship, whereby, accompanied by treasure and his battle-gear, he sails into the next world (Valhalla, Odin s big mead-hall in the sky, where mighty warriors spend their afterlife doing much of what they did on earth: feasting, drinking, and fighting). Contrast this scene with Beowulf s funeral. Sections 1-12 (to Grendel s death): After recounting Hrothgar s genealogy, the narrator introduces first Hrothgar, then Grendel. After much success in war, Hrothgar, greatgrandson of Scyld, builds the mead-hall Heorot ( hart ). Throughout Beowulf, the state of the mead-hall reflects the state of the community at large. Until Grendel wreaks havoc, Heorot is a mead-hall filled with joyful din and with the harp s sound, the clear song of the scop (89-90), indicating that it is a happy and safe place with many celebrations and feasts. Its name, Heorot, may symbolize Hrothgar: a hart is not just a deer, but more specifically a stag, a distinctly male animal who may battle with others for dominance. Although Hrothgar was a fierce buck once, his might and masculinity are diminished once he reaches old age. After Grendel begins to wreak havoc upon Heorot, the hart loses his antlers, so to speak. Trace how the descriptions of Hrothgar as a mighty warrior and king shift to those of Hrothgar as an old man, one who functions in ways similar to the women in the text. Despite his age, Hrothgar is established as an example of an excellent king: he remembered his boast; he gave out rings (80). He is generous and he keeps his word. Grendel is introduced as a bold demon who waited in darkness (86). The Old English does not refer to Grendel as a demon ; this is the word chosen by the translator. A few lines further, Grendel is described as a fiend from hell (101). The Old English word

7 feond is glossed as fiend, but may also be glossed simply as foe or enemy, as it is in the poem Judith (195, 321). See the translator s note 1 on page 48. Note how often dark or darkness appear in relation to Grendel. This could be a metaphoric darkness to symbolize Grendel s godlessness or to reflect that he has committed evil deeds. It could also be literal, since Grendel only appears in times of darkness, that is, at night and in dark places, such as the fens. The darkness could also refer to the lawless and community-less places outside of Heorot, a place of law and community. Why does Grendel begin his attacks on Heorot? What exactly is Grendel s crime? The text makes it clear that Grendel s killing of Hrothgar s thanes is a series of foul acts. Note the grievous complaint levied against Grendel in lines : Grendel does not pay wergild for his murders. Wergild was established as one of several means to prevent, or at least to mitigate, blood-feud and revenge killings. Note that, according to the poet, after Cain kills Abel, the eternal Lord avenged that death (108). Avenging the death of (wrongfully) slain warriors, especially ones related by blood or oaths, is part of a warrior s duty and an important community duty. Another complaint against Grendel is lodged in lines and demonstrates how his behavior is the antithesis of Anglo- Saxon values and the code of the comitatus. Consider how God is described in ways calculated to appeal to a militant culture. Beowulf is first introduced in line 194 as the thane of Hygelac. However, he is not referred to by name until he himself exclaims it: Beowulf is my name (341). News of Grendel s heinous deeds travel, and after Beowulf hears of them, he makes the decision to travel to Heorot. Once Beowulf s ship lands on the Danish shores, his presence there is challenged by one of Hrothgar s thanes and then again by another at the gates of Heorot. After greeting Hrothgar, Beowulf explains that he is there to rid Heorot of Grendel s presence. He gives a resumé of sorts: previously, he slew a tribe of giants and fought sea-monsters by night ( ). Beowulf requests of Hrothgar that he and his men alone be allowed to fight Grendel and to do so in hand-to-hand combat, since as a wild creature, Grendel does not care for weapons ( ). Beowulf also requests that his possessions be sent on to Hygelac if he should perish in the battle against Grendel. He ends his speech by asserting that wyrd always goes as it must! (455). This is only one of several references to fate made by Beowulf or the narrator. In Germanic mythology, one s fate is fixed from the moment of birth. The only control a warrior has over his fate is whether to meet it bravely or not. As Beowulf himself states: wyrd often spares/an undoomed man, when his courage endures! (572-3). We find out that Beowulf s underlying reason for coming to Heorot is to honor an oathdebt made by Ecgtheow to Hrothgar in exchange for a time when Hrothgar paid wergild to settle a blood-feud begun by Ecgtheow ( ). When his father died, Beowulf became honor-bound to repay Ecgtheow s debt. When Beowulf declares before witnesses his intention to best Grendel and to do so in hand-to-hand combat, he is making a kind of promise. A boast, such as he makes in lines , in , in , etc., may be viewed as grandstanding or arrogance by a

8 modern audience, but to Anglo-Saxon audiences, it is another type of promise. In contrast to Beowulf s boast, note lines of Hrothgar s speech. As long as he keeps his word, Beowulf will remain an honorable and lauded man who wields good words. This will be more noticeable in Beowulf s discussion with Unferth in sections 8 and 9. Unferth provokes Beowulf with his battle-runes ( ill-thoughts ) and begins flyting, a contest of words, with Beowulf. A mighty warrior wields both weapons and words well, and Beowulf exhibits skill with each. His ability to best Unferth in flyting is not unlike a scop s ability to improvise verse, as there is artistry in both. Beowulf later demonstrates his own abilities as a scop when he regales Hygelac and Hygd with his adventures in Denmark. After the flyting, Wealhtheow is introduced (612). Generally speaking, the roles of women in Anglo-Saxon poetry tend to be more verbal or symbolic than active: they act as hostesses and passers of the mead-cup, they counsel, they egg men on or remind them to behave appropriately, and they lament. They may also be given as brides to members of a tribe engaged in blood-feud with their kin. In this way, a woman is said to act as a freo uwebbe, a peace-weaver. Although this word is used only once in Old English (in line 1942 in reference to Thryth), the act of marrying off women as a means of preventing blood-feud and establishing ties between tribes is mentioned in several places, including once by Beowulf himself when he mentions its futility ( ). The story of Hildeburh, a digression, details the difficulties experienced by a woman with familial ties to two feuding tribes ( ). The elements of Wealhtheow s name, wealh foreigner and theow slave or servant, may be indicative of her own role as a peace-weaver. Indeed, Beowulf later refers to her as a bond of peace to nations (2017). Wealhtheow could be considered part of a system exogamy that exchanges women in order to form kinship ties between men. Does this seem to be the case for the other women in Beowulf? When Wealhtheow makes her first appearance in Beowulf, she is acting as a hostess and bearer of the mead cup. Is there significance in passing the mead-cup first to Hrothgar and last to Beowulf ( )? Although early scholarship diminished the importance of the role played by women in Beowulf, more recent scholarship accords it more significance. Consider the ways in which women in Beowulf are described. Wealhtheow is the only woman who actually speaks in the poem; consider the impact her words may have. After enjoying a merry feast at Heorot, Beowulf and his men bed down for the night. During the night, Grendel makes his appearance ( ) and makes the mistake of grabbing Beowulf ( ), who pinned him fast (788). Beowulf s men draw their weapons, unaware that Grendel had worked a curse upon weapons ( ). Beowulf s mighty grip tears off Grendel s arm, and Grendel flees Heorot and heads to the fens, knowing that he is mortally wounded ( ). Grendel s claw is retained as a clear sign of his doom ( ). This is just one of many tacen (literally token, a sign) present within Beowulf (the head of Holofernes in Judith is also called a tacen). Thus, Beowulf fulfills his boasts.

9 Sections (to Beowulf s departure): After Grendel s defeat at the hands of Beowulf, people come to view the wundor ( marvelous thing, marvel, the object of astonishment, 840) that is Grendel s trail. (What else in this text is accounted marvelous? The presence of these marvels may be why Beowulf became bound with other texts filled with wondrous creatures, places, and adventures.) Although Grendel s dead body is not visible, the men see the blood in the water as a sign of his death ( ). While the men ride back to Heorot, one of the king s thanes acts as scop and extemporaneously composes a song recounting Beowulf s deeds ( ). Beowulf is then indirectly praised when the scop begins a digression in which he tells the tale of Sigemund the dragon-slayer ( ). As a negative example in contrast to Sigemund (and thus to Beowulf), part of the story of Heremod is also told ( ). Clearly the Sigemund digression foreshadows Beowulf s fight with the dragon later in the poem. Is the story of Heremod foreshadowing as well? By morning, the men have returned to Heorot, and people crowd to see Grendel s hand, the strange wonder (920). Note that Hrothgar emerges from the woman s chambers (922). In The Germania (late first century), the Roman historian Tacitus notes that old men are in the same social category as women. Does his observation square with how Hrothgar functions in the text once Beowulf arrives? Holding up Grendel s hand for all to see, Hrothgar begins an important speech in section 14. In front of the witnesses, he tells Beowulf that he will now cherish you like a son in my heart ( ). Are there implications in this speech? Among the treasures with which Hrothgar rewards Beowulf is his own father s sword (1020) and a horse saddled with Hrothgar s own war-saddle ( ). Could these objects be viewed as tacens by the people witnessing the reward-giving? Can we tell how Wealhtheow reads Hrothgar s action and his speech when she speaks to him ( )? She reminds Hrothgar that though he may have adopted Beowulf, verbally and symbolically, he has two fine sons to inherit his kingdom. She then turns to Beowulf and offers him rewards as well, including Freyja s necklace (1195). (Freyja her day becomes Friday is the Norse goddess of love and sexuality, comparable to the Roman goddess Venus. Freyja is also associated with war and battles.) After rewarding Beowulf before the occupants of the mead-hall, Wealhtheow rises and makes a speech ( ) in which she praises him. She also offers him a subtle warning to not attempt to take over the kingdom. In contrast to the mead-hall at the beginning of Judith the warriors at Heorot do not drink to excess; they remain ready for battle ( ). After the men fall asleep, Grendel s mother makes her appearance and is called an avenger and monsterwoman (1256). In the Old English, she is introduced as Grendles modor, ides, aglæcwif. Note that in Old English, the term ides ( woman ) is applied to her as it is also ascribed to Wealhtheow and Hildeburh, for example. She is a mother, a woman, and lastly, a monster-woman. To what effect or purpose is her gender emphasized by the Beowulf-poet? Whereas the reason for Grendel s attacks on Heorot are ambiguous, the poet specifies that revenge is the reason for Grendel s mother s attack on Heorot: she kills one of Hrothgar s men in retaliation for the death of her son, a job that would ordinarily be performed by male kin. The poet comments on the weakness of women s warfare in lines

10 Hrothgar laments the death of Æschere at the hands of Grendel s mother, and he acknowledges that Æschere was a blood-feud casualty that Grendel s mother was avenging the death of her son. Hrothgar then describes to Beowulf all that he knows of Grendel, Grendel s mother, and their home ( ). He offers Beowulf more treasure if Beowulf avenges Æschere s death by killing Grendel s mother. This is the type of blood-feud wergild is supposed to prevent. Is Hrothgar behaving like a good Christian in that moment? Is Beowulf when he tells Hrothgar that it is better to avenge one s friend than to mourn let him who can bring about fame before death that is best for the unloving man after he is gone ( )? What values does Beowulf articulate in these lines? As Beowulf is preparing to leave for the fens, Unferth lends to Beowulf the sword Hrunting, an ancient weapon that had never before failed in battle. In lines the poet comments on how Unferth lost honor and reputation, since he made boasts that he could not uphold. In contrast, Beowulf remains steadfast throughout the text and follows through with his boasts and promises ( ). After making provisions for his men and his treasure should he perish in the battle against Grendel s mother, Beowulf makes his way to the fens. In contrasts to the poet s earlier comment about the weakness of women s strength, Grendel s mother is strong enough to grapple with Beowulf and force him into her abode, where he is unable to utilize his weapons ( ). Once in the dwelling, Beowulf discovers that his weapons are useless against her. However, he takes one of her weapons, a special one made by giants, and angry and resolute he beheads her with it ( ). Then, spying Grendel s body, Beowulf beheads Grendel s corpse and carries Grendel s head another tacen back with him in victory to Heorot ( ). Note that Beowulf does not bring back Grendel s mother s head: why not? Hrothgar thanks Beowulf and praises him ( ) However, he also cautions Beowulf not to become overly proud nor to allow pride to get in the way of being a good leader of men. Hrothgar again picks up the story of Heremod, a Danish leader who was too proud, who slew his own men when enraged, who did not reward his men with rings, and who thus did great harm to his people ( ). Heremod s name, here ire + mod, mood, may be allegorical. Hrothgar then continues with a didactic speech on the evils of pride ( ). Note in particular the lines , wherein Hrothgar humbly talks about getting old. He infers that he himself had to let go of pride in order to allow a young man like Beowulf to resolve the issues plaguing his people ( ). The feasting and celebrating commences. Beowulf announces that he and his men wish to return home, then he pledges to return to aid Hrothgar should Hrothgar ever again require it. Beowulf also pledges friendship with Hrothgar s sons. Hrothgar gives Beowulf more treasures. Section (Beowulf s return home): Beowulf and his men return home by ship and go to Hygelac s mead-hall. The Beowulf-poet introduces and praises Hygd, Hygelac s queen. Her name is probably also allegorical and may be glossed as mindful. Her name

11 may be a statement about the proper behavior of queens, much like Heremod s name may be a comment on the improper behavior of kings. As a contrast to the good queen Hygd, the poet begins a digression about the queen Thryth, whose own name may be glossed as something like strong-minded or willful. Thryth committed terrible crimes : she had men who looked at her put to death ( ). As the poet states, that is inappropriate behavior for a woman women should weave peace, not cause strife ( ). Incidentally, the word queen comes from the Old English cwen, a word that could also simply mean woman. As a result, the text is ambiguous, as it could indicate that Thryth s behavior is inappropriate for a queen, or inappropriate for women in general. Regardless, once Thryth is given as a bride to Offa in an exogamous union, she caused less calamity to the people ( ). The implication is that marriage tames a woman. Beowulf greets Hygelac ( ) upon his return, and Hygd passes around the meadcup. Most of sections consists of Beowulf s speech recounting his adventures among the Danes. Beowulf states that Hrothgar assigned [him] a seat with his own sons (2013). He praises Wealtheow ( ) and Freawaru, Walhtheow and Hrothgar s daughter ( ). Beowulf then makes a very astute comment on the futility of marrying off daughters to heal blood-feuds ( and ). As a scop and a good leader of men, Beowulf is a good speaker and story-teller. Whereas we previously heard the stories of Grendel s death as well as that of his mother from the poet s point of view, we now hear them from Beowulf s. Beowulf takes slightly longer to recount the death of Grendel ( ) than he does the death of Grendel s mother ( ), for which his version is significantly shorter than that of the poet s. Beowulf could perhaps be read as somewhat sympathetic to her situation when he states: There, quickly ready with revenge for her griefs, Grendel s mother journeyed sorrowful; death took her son ( ). Beowulf colorfully embroiders his encounter with Grendel, but his encounter with Grendel s mother seems matter-of-fact. In fealty to Hygelac, Beowulf gives him some of the treasure Hrothgar gave to him ( ). Here Beowulf s first-person narration ends, and the poet comments on Beowulf s appropriate behavior ( ) and on how through this good behavior, the Geats now thought him to be a good man ( ). This passage echoes the lines in the prologue about how a prince should behave (20-25). Hygelac rewards Beowulf with treasure: he gives him his own father s sword, land, and a hall ( ). This passage recalls the one wherein Hrothgar gives to Beowulf his battle-gear and symbolically adopts him as a son. In effect, Hygelac also adopts Beowulf and symbolically makes him his heir by passing down the heirloom weapon. [If reading Judith along with Beowulf, then consider the implications of the passage ( ) wherein Judith receives Holofernes war-gear.] After Hygelac dies, his son Heardred perishes in battle, and Beowulf becomes the Geatish king ( ). Beowulf rules well for 50 years before a dragon begins to trouble his people ( ). Sections (to the death of Beowulf and the end): A man discovers the dragon s hoard and steals a jeweled cup from it. The dragon soon discovers the theft and repays it by terrorizing the local people with his fire. Note the many different kennings and

12 metaphors used to identify the dragon. The dragon burns down Beowulf s mead-hall, and Beowulf devised revenge ( ). As a result of his many successes throughout his lifetime, Beowulf scorned to fight the dragon with an army ( ). Instead, he takes with him 11 men plus the thief to lead the way ( ). Beginning in section 34, the Beowulf-poet foreshadows Beowulf s death at the hands of the dragon. The poet also makes it clear that Beowulf senses his own demise ( ). As he did before the fight against Grendel, Beowulf boasts he will slay the dragon or die trying, if wyrd should so decree ( ). At this point, Beowulf is at least as old as Hrothgar was when Beowulf went to aid him: compare Beowulf s behavior as king with that of Hrothgar. Beowulf then singlehandedly begins to fight the dragon ( ). Fate does not decree a win for Beowulf in this challenge ( ), and his sword fails him ( ). When the dragon breathes flames at Beowulf ( ), his thanes run away in fear, leaving Beowulf alone there ( ). Is this appropriate behavior for members of the comitatus? What could this signal? One of Beowulf s thanes, Wiglaf, remembers the loyalty owed to his liege lord. He reprimands his companions ( ) and returns to stand by Beowulf ( ). We are told that Nægling, Beowulf s sword, shatters, since it was Beowulf s fate to have weapons fail him; Beowulf should battle with his hands ( ). The dragon grabs Beowulf in his jaws ( ). Wiglaf aids Beowulf and strikes the dragon with his sword; working together, they fell the dragon ( ). Beowulf realizes that he has been poisoned by the dragon ( ) and that he will die from it ( ). Beowulf tells Wiglaf he wishes he might have had an heir to whom he could bequeath his war-gear, though fate did not allot him a son ( ). What are the implications of this? Beowulf asks Wiglaf to get the dragon s hoard so that he might look upon it before he dies ( ). Wiglaf does so and returns to Beowulf ( ). Beowulf gives thanks for the treasure, as it will be an aid to his people ( ), and calls for a tomb, Beowulf s Barrow, to be built above his funeral pyre ( ). Beowulf gives to Wiglaf the circlet from his neck, his helmet, his ring, and his byrnie, and then he dies ( ). Ashamed of themselves, the 10 cowardly thanes return to find Beowulf dead ( ). Wiglaf reprimands them again ( ). Beowulf s death is announced ( ), as is the fact that strife may come to the people as a result ( ). The Franks, Frisians, Merovingians, and Swedes may all attack now that Beowulf is dead. As his people prepare for Beowulf s funeral, they look on his dead body as well as that of the dragon, and the hoard is divided among all ( ). His people prepare Beowulf s pyre ( ). A Geatish woman sings a lament for him and sings of her fears of the dark days to come ( ). This is an important and evocative passage, one that foreshadows the wretched future of Beowulf s people. It also connects the lamenting woman with Hildeburh, as they both perform a lament, a role carried out by women and poets. As Beowulf wished, his people build a barrow for him and place some of the dragon s treasure within it, where it yet remains, just as useless to men as it was before ( ). Compare the descriptions and significance of treasures and goods in the first 31 sections with those in the dragon episode. Beowulf s thanes encircle the barrow and offer words of praise ( ). Consider the last words of the text: of all the

13 kings of the world [he] was the most eager for fame ( ). What does this say about Beowulf? Questions for Discussion 1. Does Beowulf go to Heaven or to Valhalla? According to his culture and the examples given to us by the text, is Beowulf a good warrior? A good king? 2. What is the significance of lineage and kinship in the poem? 3. What is the importance of armor and weaponry in the poem? How might it connect to ideas about lineage and kinship? 4. Why might a Christian poet write a poem about a pagan culture? How is Christianity contrasted with paganism in the poem? Are some practices, elements, terminology, values, or characters clearly Christian or clearly pagan? Which are ambiguous? What is the effect upon the reader? 5. What does the text present as good and evil? Are we able to feel any empathy for any of the three monsters, or are they unambiguously evil? 6. How do women fit into the heroic world? How do they comment upon it? The publisher gratefully acknowledges the assistance of Allisandra Paschkowiak, of Westfield State College, for the preparation of the draft material.