All children learn skills at different ages, but the order in which they learn them is universal

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1 All children learn skills at different ages, but the order in which they learn them is universal Development is affected by Nutrition nutrition of a child INCLUDING nutrition of mother during prenatal period cultural practices social situations socioeconomic level parent-child relationships family position genetic makeup temperment life experiences interaction between the above factors Basic Principles of Child Development 1. Children are competent 2. Children resemble one another 3. Each child is unique 4. Development is directional 5. Development is Timely Accommodation Adaptation phase Adjustment phase Anticipatory guidance Assimilation Associative play Autosomal chromosomes Cephalocaudal development Conservation Cooperative play Defense mechanisms Development Key Terms Process in which changes are made to deal with new experiences A pahse in which a child and family meet a challenge and use resources to dealth with a crisis When first confronted by a crisis a child & family firest experiences the adjustment phase. It is characterized by disorganization and unsuccessful attempts at meeting the crisis Method to predict upcoming developmental tasks or needs of a child; used to identify appropriate teachings related to upcoming stages Process of incorporation of new experiences One or more children playing together, each with their own roles Chromosomes that govern all characteristics, except gender Growth or Development that occurs from the head down; this is the type of growth that occurs in the womb Matter is not changed when form is altered; a short-wide glass can have the same amount of liquid as a tall thin glass Team play Mechanisms used to divert impulses & lessen anxiety Refers to a qualitative increase in capability or function

2 Dramatic play Ecologic theory Expressive jargon Growth Nature Nurture Object permanence Parallel play Protective factors Proximodistal development Puberty Resilience Risk factors Sex chromosomes Solitary play Play that lives out the drama of human life Emphasizes the presence of mutual interactions between the child and various settings; neither nature nor nurture is considered of more importance Using unintelligible words with normal speech intonations as if truly communicating in words. Refers to an increase in physical size Refers to the genetic or hereditary capability of an individual Refers to the effects of the environment on a person's performance The knowledge that something continues to exist even when out of sight Play with similar objects and toys side by side, occasionally trading toys and words. Characteristics that provide strength and assistance in dealing with crises growth/development that occurs from the center of the body outward to the extremities Sexual maturation, begins at the end of the school-age period The ability to function with healthy responses, even when faced with significant stress and adversity Characteristics that promote or contribute to challenges Two chromosomes (X & Y) that determine the gender of a child Play engaged by themselves, typical of infants. Infancy Toddlerhood Preschool School age Adolescence Developmental Age Groups Birth to 12 months. Includes infants or babies up to 1 year of age who require a high level of care in daily activities 1-3 years. Characterized by increased motor ability & independent behavior 3-6 years. The preschooler refines gross and fine motor ability & language skills. Often participates in a preschool learning program 6-12 years. Begins with entry into a school system and is characterized by growing intellectual skills, physical ability and independence years. Begins with entry into the teen years. Mature cognitive thought, formation of identity, and influence of peers are important characteristics of adolescence. Common Defense Mechanisms Used by Children

3 Defense Mechanism Definition Example Regression Return to an earlier behavior A previously toilet trained child becomes incontinent when separated from parent during a hospitalization Repression Rationalization Fantasy Involuntary forgetting of an uncomfortable situation An attempt o make unacceptable feelings acceptable A creation of the mind to help deal with unacceptable fear Major Theories of Development Freud Freud viewed the personality as a structure with three parts: Id Ego An abused child cannot consciously recall episodes of abuse A child explains hitting another because he took my toy A hospitalized child who is weak pretends to be Superman. basic sexual energy that is present at birth; drives the individual to seek pleasure the realistic part of the person; develops during infancy & searches for acceptable methods of meeting impulses Superego the moral/ethical system; develops in childhood & contains a set of values and conscience The ego diverts impulses & protects itself from excess anxiety by use of defense mechanisms Freud emphasizes the importance of meeting the needs of each stage in order to move successfully into future stages. Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital Freud's Stages Birth to 1 year; infant derives pleasure largely from the mouth, with sucking & eating as primary desires 1 to 3 years; the young child's pleasure is centered in the anal area, with control over body secretions as a prime force in behavior 3 to 6 years; sexual energy becomes centered int eh genitalia as the child works out relationships with parents of the same and opposite sex 6 to 12 years; sexual energy is at rest in the passage between earlier stages and adolescence 12 years to adulthood; mature sexuality is achieved as physical growth is completed and relationships with others occur Erickson Erickson's developmental theory describes psychosocial stages during eight periods of human life for each stage there is a crisis or a normal maturational social need each developmental crisis has two possible outcomes 1. Needs are met and the consequence is healthy and the individual moves on to future

4 stages with particular strengths 2. Needs are not met and the consequence is unhealthy and will influence future social relationships First 5 of Erickson's Stages Trust versus Mistrust Autonomy versus Shame & Doubt Initiative versus Guilt Industry versus Inferiority Identity versus Role Confusion Birth to 1 year; the task of the first year of life is to establish trust in the people providing care. Trust is fostered by provision of food, clean clothing, touch, and comfort. If basic needs are not met, the infant will eventually learn to mistrust others. 1-3 years; the toddler's sense of autonomy or independence is shown by controlling body excretions, saying no when asked to do something, and directing motor activity and play. Children who are consiste4ntly criticized for expressions of autonomy or for lack of control (e.g. during toilet training) will develop a sense of shame about themselves and doubt in their abilities. 3-6 years; the young child initiates new activities and considers new ideas. This interest in exploring the world creates a child who is involved and busy. Constant criticism, on the other hand, l eads to feelings of guilt and a lack of purpose years; the middle years of childhood are characterized by development of the new interests and by involvement of activities. The child takes pride in accomplishments in sports, school, home and community. If the child cannot accomplish what is expected, however, the result will be a sense of inferiority years; in adolescence, as the body matures and thought processes become more complex, a new sense of identity of self is established. The self, family, peer group and community are all examined and redefined. The adolescent who is unable to establish a meaningful definition of self will experience confusion in one or more roles of life. Piaget Piaget's theory describes Cognitive (or Intellectual) development Piaget believed the child's view of the world is influenced largely by age and maturational ability providing nurturing experiences allows a child's ability to think mature naturally Piaget's Stages Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years; infants learn about the world by input obtained through the senses and by their motor activity. There are six substages: Use of Reflexes Birth to 1 month; Infant begins life with a set of reflexes such as sucking, rooting & grasping. Using these reflexes, the infant receives stimulation via touch, sound, smell and vision. The reflexes pave the way for the first learning to occur.

5 Primary Circular Reactions 1 to 4 months; pleasure is gained from reflexive response causes repetition of the behavior. For example, shaking a rattle produces a pleasing sound so a child will grasp and shake it again Secondary Circular Reactions 4 to 8 months; awareness of the environment grows as the infant begins to connect cause and effect. Sounds of bottle preparation will lead to excited behavior. If an object is partially hidden, the infant will attempt to uncover and retrieve it. Coordination of Secondary Schemes 8-12 months; intentional behavior is observed as the infant uses learned behavior to obtain objects, create sounds or engage in other pleasurable activity. Object permanence begins developing. Tertiary Circular Reactions months; curiosity, experimentation and exploration predominate as the toddler tried out actions to learn results. The child turns objects in every direction, places them in the mouth, uses them for banging, and inserts them in containers as he or she explores their qualities and uses. Preoperational Mental combinations Months; Language provides a new tool for the toddler to use in understanding the world. Language enables the child to think about events and objects before or after they occur. Object permanence is now fully developed as the child actively searches for objects in various locations and out of view. The child who has had successful separations from the parents followed by return, such as hours spent in another person's home or childcare center, beings to understand that the missing parent will return. Concrete Operational Formal Operational 2-7 years; the young child thinks by using words as symbols, but logic is not well developed. Preconceptual 2-4 years; vocabulary and comprehension increase greatly, but the child is egocentric (unable to see things from the perspective of another) Intuitive 4-7 years; the child relies on transductive reasoning (drawing conclusions from one general fact to another). For example, when a child disobeys a parent and then fall sand breaks an arm that day, the child may ascribe the broken arm to bad behavior. Cause-and-effect relationships are often unrealistic or the result of magical thinking (the belief that events occur because of thoughts or wishes). Other characteristics are centration (the ability to consider only one aspect of a situation at a time) and animism (giving life to inanimate objects because they move, make noise, or have other qualities) years; transductive reasoning has given way to a more accurate understanding of cause and effect. A child can reason quite well if concrete objects are used in teaching or experimentation. The concept of conservation (matter does not change when its form is altered) is learned at this stage. 11 years to adulthood; fully mature intellectual though has now been

6 attained. The adolescent can think abstractly about objects or concepts and consider different alternatives or outcomes. Milestones Infant Birth to 1 year Double birth weight at 6 months Triple birth weight at 12 months Rolls over at 4 months Holds head steady at 6 months Sitting 6-8months Walking 12 months Pincer grasp 10 months 2 words by 12 months solid food at 6 months Object permanence Separation Anxiety (around 8 months) Risk for Aspiration First teeth 6-10 months (lower incisors are first) Engages in Solitary Play Nursing Management for Infancy discuss age-appropriate recommendations teach nutrition sleep patterns foster attachment hold for feedings hold, rock, and talk to infant often talk and sing frequently during care tell names of objects use high-pitched voice with newborns when infant is upset, swaddle & hold securely explore family support systems safety Nutrition Breast milk or formula for the first year 4-6 months iron fortified rice cereal first! Veggies next meat last at 8-10 months Toddler 1 to 3 years rate of growth slows during 2nd year of life

7 by age 2 birth weight has usually quadrupled & child is about ½ of adult height pot-bellied appearance stands with feet apart to provide wide base of support by 33 months eruption of deciduous teeth is complete (20 teeth present) gross motor activity develops rapidly screening for lead poisoning is important at this age temper tantrums ignore temper tantrums unless unsafe! Usually generated by a sense of frustration in the child Negativism - NO NO NO!!! rudimentary problem solving, creative thought and an understanding of cause-and-effect relationships are now possible. Parallel play gross and fine motor skills are enhanced at beginning of toddlerhood a child may use 4 to 6 words in addition to mama & dada; by 3 years old vocabulary is at almost 1000 words, and a child can use short sentences receptive speech far outpaces expressive speech includes transitional objects (blankie!) Nursing Management for a Toddler when communicating with toddler: give short, clear instructions do not give choices if none exist offer a choice of two alternatives when possible approach positively and slowly, allowing time for the toddler to adjustmenttell toddler what you are doing & say names of objects discuss age-appropriate recommendations toilet training sibling rival expect regressive behavior with arrival of a new baby maintain sleep patterns attentive watch is necessary for safety gates to prevent falls lock up toxins & anything poisonous heat shields for stove to prevent burns car seats in the car supervise near water to prevent drowning physiologic anorexia food jags if on a food jag, the child may only eat yogurt for days! serving amounts 1 tablespoons for every year of life provide for self feeding: finger foods/spoon Preschool child 3 to 6 years grows slowly & steadily, most growth takes place in long bones of arms & legs period to encourage good dental habits

8 associative play body contour changes social/language skills increase appetite is diminished fear of dark, mutilation and abandonment self-centered cannot see other peoples point of view magical thinking If I am mad at Mommy & she gets sick, I caused it! Bedtime issues preschooler's interpretation of language is very literal, a shot in the arm may be interpreted as a a gunshot. Concrete visual aids are useful when communicating with a preschooler allow time for child to integrate explanations verbalize frequently to a preschooler use drawings & stories to explain care use accurate names for body fucntions allow choices Nursing Management for a Preschooler discuss age-appropriate recommendations teach nutrition encourage new foods sleep patterns consistency & ritual family include child in family rituals fears boogeyman & animals are common! Safety School-age child 6-12 years old slimmer, stronger & increased fine motor skills grow spurt/prepubescent period girls at approximately 10 years boy at approximately 13 years nutritional needs increase with growth spurt permanent teeth erupt 6 year molars are first 4-8 years old and years old are ages when cavities are prevalent latch-key children concrete thought cooperative play/rules/routine obesity risk begins peer group is a bigger influence sexuality/inappropriate touch Nursing Management for a School-age child discuss age-appropriate recommendations

9 teach nutrition sleep patterns (8-10 hours) family kids may want to know why they wake up in the night with leg cramps; explain growing pains to them promote skill development in school, sports & play safety communication provide concrete examples of pictures or materials to accompany verbal descriptions assess knowledge before planning teaching allow child to select rewards following procedures teach techniques such as counting or visualization to manage difficult situations include child in discussions and history with parent be honest in explanations and all communications

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