The size and range effect: lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of electric vehicles

Transcription

1 Supplementary data The size and range effect: lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of electric vehicles Linda Ager-Wick Ellingsen, Bhawna Singh, and Anders Hammer Strømman Industrial Ecology Programme and Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway Contents 1. Scope and method Scoping vehicles size and segments Electric vehicle inventory Inventory for vehicle production, use, and end-of-life treatment Inventories for battery production and end-of-life treatment The fossil envelope lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of conventional vehicles Production and use End-of-life treatment impacts Results Complete numerical results Sensitivity analysis electricity source References... 9

2 1. Scope and method 1.1 Scoping vehicles size and segments For twenty EVs, we obtained curb weight (kg) and NEDC energy requirement (kwh/km). These data as well as their data sources are listed in table S1. Table S1 Collected data for a range of electric vehicles Electric vehicle model Weight (kg) NEDC Energy requirement (Wh/km) Smart Fortwo electric drive Mitsubishi imiev Peugeot ion Citroën C-Zero VW e-up! BMW i Kia Soul EV Peugeot Kangoo Renault Zoe VW e-golf Nissan e-nv Renault Fluence Z.E Nissan LEAF Citroën Berlingo s Ford Focus Electric Citroën Berlingo l Mercedes B Class Electric drive Reference (Daimler AG 2012a) (Mitsubishi Motors Europe BV 2013) (Peugeot 2014) (Citroën 2013; GoingElectric 2014b) (Volkswagen AG 2013) (BMW AG 2013) (Kia Bil Norge AS 2014) (Renault 2014; Renault 2013; Elbilforening 2014) (Renaut 2014) (Volkswagen AG 2014) (Nissan Motor (GB) LIMITED 2014) (GoingElectric 2014c) (Nissan Motor 2014) (Citroën 2014; GoingElectric 2014a) (Norsk elbilforening 2014; auto revue 2014) (Citroën 2014; GoingElectric 2014a) (Daimler AG 2014) (BMW AG 2014) BMW Active e (Tesla Motors 2014) Tesla S model 60 kwh Tesla S model 85 kwh * ( Tesla Motors 2014; ) *The NEDC energy requirement for the Tesla model S with an 85 kwh battery was unattainable. The energy requirement given in the table was based on the U.S. official government source for fuel economy information and the NEDC energy requirement for the Tesla S model with a 60 kwh battery. U.S.85kWh = 0.236( 2014) and U.S.60kWh = 0.217( 2014) NEDC 85kWh = U. S. 85kWh U. S. 60kWh NEDC 60kWh

3 1.2 Electric vehicle inventory To ensure comprehensive understanding of each of the lifecycle phases, the most complete and detailed inventories available on EVs (Hawkins et al 2013) and Li-ion batteries (Ellingsen et al 2013; Dewulf et al 2010) were synthesized and adapted Inventory for vehicle production, use, and end-of-life treatment Hawkins et al (2013) present a comprehensive cradle-to-grave inventory of EVs. Their subinventories for vehicle (without battery) production and end-of-life treatment were adjusted according to vehicle weight. As for the use phase, we considered two factors: EV energy requirement and total driving distance. The NEDC energy requirements (E NEDC) does not take into account the losses in the battery or the charger. The NEDC energy requirements were divided by the energy efficiency (η) of the battery (95% (Miljøbil Grenland 2012)) and charger (96%) to establish EV energy requirement (E EV) including losses. E EV = E NEDC η Based on the energy requirement (E EV) and a total mileage of 180,000 km, the total lifetime energy requirement of the EVs was calculated. NEDC energy requirement, EV energy requirement, and total lifetime energy requirement for the different sized EVs are displayed in table S2. Table S2 Energy requirement Segment NEDC energy requirement (Wh/km) EV energy requirement (Wh/km) Total lifetime energy use (kwh) A - mini car C - medium car D - large car F - luxury car Inventories for battery production and end-of-life treatment The most important modification was in relation to the number of battery cells. Higher energy capacity required an increase in the number of battery cells. Furthermore, each cell required a nylon cassette with aluminium heat-transfer plates. These cassettes made up much of the module packaging, and therefore the number of battery cells influenced module packaging weight changes. Each battery module (30 cells) had one battery management board. These were very light, and as the number of battery management boards were the only adjustment performed on the battery management system, there was little change in weight for this component group. The difference in cooling system weight was mainly due to the number of radiators. Battery packaging was changed mostly due to the size of the battery tray. Component weights are displayed in table S3.

4 Table S3 Weight of battery components Component group 17.7 kwh battery 26.6 kwh battery 42.1 kwh battery 59.9 kwh battery Battery cells (kg) Module packaging (kg) Battery management system (kg) Cooling system (kg) Battery packaging In table S4, we have the weight of the battery pack and the vehicle (without battery), as well as the entire vehicle. Table S4 Weight of battery, vehicle (without battery), and total EV Segment Battery weight (kg) Vehicle weight (kg) EV weight (kg) A - mini car C - medium car D - large car F - luxury car For end-of-life treatment of the battery, an inventory based on the pyrometallurgical treatment described in Dewulf et al (2010) was compiled. Table S5 Battery EOL treatment inventory Input Output Unit Econinvent process CaO (lime) 1.3E-01 kg lime, hydraulic, at plant/ CH/ kg Cooling water 1.4E+04 kg water, decarbonised, at plant/ RER/ kg Cokes 7.7E-01 MJ hard coal, burned in industrial furnace 1-10MW/ RER/ MJ Total heat 2.3E-01 MJ heat, unspecific, in chemical plant/ RER/ MJ Facility 1.9E-08 p facilities precious metal refinery/ SE/ unit Total Electricity 1.6E-01 kwh medium voltage Spent battery 1.0E+00 kg Heat loss 2.5E+00 MJ Heat, waste/ air/ unspecified Alloy 4.8E-01 kg Slag 2.5E-01 kg

5 1.3 The fossil envelope lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions of conventional vehicles Note that the LCA results for the ICEVs only provide indicative benchmarks Production and use From automobile manufacturers Mercedes-Benz and Volkswagen, LCA results for production and use of cars in segment A, C, D, and F were collected. Vehicle curb weight (kg), production impact (ton CO 2-eq), and use phase impact (g CO 2-eq/km) were collected. For mini cars, results were gathered for two gasoline up! models (Wolkswagen AG 2015). For medium cars, LCA results were collected for the gasoline and diesel Golfs, the gasoline A 180 BlueEFFICIENCY, and the gasoline B 170 (Volkswagen AG 2012; Daimler AG 2012b; Daimler AG 2011). For large cars, results were collected for the diesel and gasoline Passats, the gasoline C 250, and gasoline CLS 350 (Daimler AG 2010; Daimler AG 2015a; Volkswagen AG 2010). For the luxury cars, only the report on the gasoline S 500 was available (Daimler AG 2015b). To get a larger sample size of the use phase impacts, we also included use phase emissions (g CO 2/km) from the S 350 BlueTEC and the BMW 7 series (Daimler AG 2015b; BMW AG 2015). We converted these use phase emissions (g CO 2/km) to use phase impacts (g CO 2-eq/km) by multiplying the emissions with a conversion factor. The conversion factor was the use phase impact divided by the use phase emission of the S 500 and was found to be 1.2. Production intensity (ton CO 2-eq/ton vehicle) was calculated based on curb weight and production impact. Table S 6 Data collected for internal combustion engine vehicles Segment Car model Curb weight (kg) Production (ton CO2- eq) Production intensity (ton CO2- eq/ton vehicle) Use phase impact (g CO2- eq/km) Use phase emission (g CO2/km) Average use phase emission (g CO2/km) Report year A - mini car C - medium car D - large car up! up! BlueMotion Golf VII 1.2 TSI B 170 Blue EFFICIENCY A 180 Blue EFFICIENCY Golf VII 1.6 TDI C Passat 1.4 TSI Passat 2.0 TDI BMT CLS 350 BlueEFFICIENCY F - luxury car S S 350 BlueTEC * BMW 7 series * *Calculated based in average use phase emissions (g CO2/km)

6 Based on the collected data, we then calculated the average weight, average production intensity, and average use phase impact for each of the segments. Table S 7 Calculated average weight, production intensity, and use phase impact Segment Average weight (kg) Average production intensity (ton CO2-eq/ton vehicle) Average use phase impact (g CO2-eq/km) A - mini car C - medium car D - large car F - luxury car The production impact of the ICEVs were calculated by multiplying the segments average weights by the segments average production intensity. Average use phase impact was calculated by the total mileage of 180,000 km to find the total use phase impact End-of-life treatment impacts Impact of EOL treatment from the ICEV inventory by Hawkins et al (2013) was scaled linearly according to the average vehicle weights. 2. Results 2.1 Complete numerical results Table S8 Lifecycle impacts of electric vehicles. Impact is measured in ton CO 2-eq per vehicle over a lifetime of 180,000 km. Scenario 1 - European electricity mix Production Use EOL Total A - mini car C - medium car D - large car F - luxury car Ecar Battery Total Ecar Battery Total Ecar Battery Total Ecar Battery Total

7 Table S9 Lifecycle impacts of conventional vehicles. Impact is measured in ton CO 2-eq per vehicle over a lifetime of 180,000 km. Segment Production Use EOL Total A - mini car C - medium car D - large car F - luxury car Table S10 Cradle-to-gate climate change potential intensity EVs ICEVs Segment Cradle-to-gate GWP intensity (ton CO2-eq/ton car) A - mini car 6.3 C - medium car 6.4 D - large car 6.8 F - luxury car 7.1 A - mini car 3.9 C - medium car 4.3 D - large car 5.6 F - luxury car Sensitivity analysis electricity source Below are the numerical results for the sensitivity analysis. Table S1 Lifecycle result for the EVs powered by coal-based electricity. Impact is measured in ton CO 2-eq per vehicle. Segment Production Use EOL Total A - mini car C - medium car D - large car F - luxury car Table S2 Lifecycle result for the EVs powered by natural gas-based electricity. Impact is measured in ton CO 2-eq per vehicle. Segment Production Use EOL Total A - mini car C - medium car D - large car F - luxury car

8 Table S3 Lifecycle result for the EVs powered by wind-based electricity. Impact is measured in ton CO 2-eq per vehicle. Segment Production Use EOL Total A - mini car C - medium car D - large car F - luxury car Table S4 Lifecycle result for the prospective green energy scenario. Impact is measured in ton CO 2-eq per vehicle. Segment Production Use EOL Total A - mini car C - medium car D - large car F - luxury car Figure S 1 Lifecycle impacts of conventional vehicles and green energy EV scenario. The chart on the left side displays emissions in a cumulative manner with production, use, and end-of-life (EOL) treatment. The grey shaded area, which we refer to as the fossil envelope, indicates the lifecycle GHG emission of the conventional vehicles (segments A, C, D, and F are indicated on the right of the fossil envelope). The EV results are coloured green. In the column chart on the right, the emissions are broken down in a contributional manner with battery production, vehicle production, use, and EOL treatment.

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