RESIDENTIAL END USES OF WATER

Transcription

1 RESIDENTIAL END USES OF WATER

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3 RESIDENTIAL END USES OF WATER Prepared by: Peter W. Mayer and William B. DeOreo Aquacraft, Inc. Water Engineering and Management 2709 Pine St. Boulder, CO Eva M. Opitz, Jack C. Kiefer, William Y. Davis, and Benedykt Dziegielewski Planning and Management Consultants. Ltd. Box 1316 Carbondale, IL John Olaf Nelson John Olaf Nelson Water Resources Management 1833 Castle Drive Petaluma, CA Sponsored by: AWWA Research Foundation 6666 West Quincy Avenue Denver, CO Published by the AWWA Research Foundation and American Water Works Association

4 DISCLAIMER This study was funded by the AWWA Research Foundation (AWWARF). AWWARF assumes no responsibility for the content of the research study reported in this publication or for the opinions or statements of fact expressed in the report. The mention of trade names for commercial products does not represent or imply the approval or endorsement of AWWARF. This report is presented solely for informational purposes. Copyright 1998 AWWA Research Foundation American Water Works Association Printed in the U.S.A. iv

5 CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES... xi LIST OF FIGURES... xv FOREWORD... xvii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS... xix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY... xxi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION... 1 Background... 3 Project Team... 4 How to Use This Report... 4 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW... 6 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH APPROACHES AND PROCEDURES Overview of Research Process Study Site Selection Initial Survey Group Sample Survey Development and Implementation Survey Design Use of KEYCODE to Preserve Customer Anonymity Survey Implementation Study Group Selection Comparison of Survey Respondents with Survey Targets and Non-respondents 22 Selection of Data Logging Sample End Use Data Collection Overview Data Logging Equipment Logger Installation Data Collection Schedule End Use Data Analysis Flow Trace Analysis Meter-Master Data Loggers Trace Wizard v

6 Database Development Working Categories for Disaggregation Supplemental Data Collection Weather Data Conservation Program Data and Price and Rate Structure Quality Assurance and Quality Control Accuracy of Flow Trace Analysis CHAPTER 4 COMPARISON OF STUDY SITES Utility Service Area Characteristics Water and Sewer Rates Utility Sponsored Conservation Programs and Local Conservation Regulations 58 Information from Billing Data Annual Use Patterns Seasonal Water Use Survey Responses Survey Response Rate Comparison of Survey Responses Across Study Sites CHAPTER 5 END USE DATA ANALYSIS Daily Household Use Total Daily Use Daily Indoor Use Indoor Per Capita Use Mean Per Capita Daily Water Use Study Site Comparison Leaks Fixture Utilization Per Capita Per Day Toilets Showers Clothes Washers Analysis of Variance in Indoor Water Use Outdoor Use Irrigated Area Update vi

7 Outdoor Use and ET Irrigable Area and Application Rate Variability in Outdoor Water Use Peak Use Peak Instantaneous Demand Peak Day Demand Water Pressure Delivery Ranges Hourly Use Comparison of REUWS Results with Other Studies Per Capita Per Day Comparison Fixture Utilization Comparison Conservation Effectiveness Ultra-Low-Flush Toilets Low-Flow Showerheads Landscape Measures Additional Conservation Potential CHAPTER 6 STATISTICAL MODELS OF END USE MEASUREMENTS Introduction Survey Characteristics of the Data Logging Sample Price of Water and Sewer Omitting Weather and Seasonality from End Use Models Inferential Analysis Toilet Use Shower and Bath Use Faucet and Water Treatment System Use Dishwasher Use Clothes washer Use Leaks Outdoor Use Other/Unknown Use Predictive Analysis Estimated System of End Use Models vii

8 Applying End Use Models: An Example Comparison of Logged Use with End Use Model Predictions Extending the End Use System to Predict Total Use CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions Annual Use Daily Per Capita Use Peak Use Hourly Use End Use Models Modeling Conclusions Recommendations Modeling Recommendations APPENDIX A RESIDENTIAL END USES OF WATER SURVEY Detailed Survey Group Selection Procedures Instructions for Handling Survey Forms Suggested Cover Letter for Water Survey Residential Water Use Survey Survey Follow-up Postcard Survey Follow-up Letter to Non-Respondents Survey Implementation Schedule Sample Water Survey Input Form Draft Notice (Consent) Letter Complete Mail Survey Responses APPENDIX B QUALITY ASSURANCE AND QUALITY CONTROL Description of Eight Major Quality Assurance and Quality Control Tests QA Test 1 - Test Validity of Service Address QA Test 2 - Test to See if 1,000 Sample is Representative QA Test 3 - Check Accuracy of Survey Response Data Entry Process QA Test 4 - Test if Water Use of Survey Respondents is Representative QA Test 5 - Test if 150 Sites Selected for Logging are Representative QA Test 6 - Test Data Logger to See that it is Recording Properly viii

9 QA Test 7 - Check Accuracy of Data Logger vs. Meter QA Test 8 - Check Accuracy of Event Database QA Test Forms QA Test 1 - Test Validity of Service Address QATest 3 - Check Accuracy of Survey Response Data Entry Process QA Test 6 -- Data Logger Installation and Removal QA Test 7 -- Check Logger vs. Meter Volumes QA Test 8 -- Check Accuracy of Event Database QA Test Results APPENDIX C THE RESIDENTIAL END USES OF WATER STUDY DATABASE Introductions Database Structure Database Tables Data Considerations Keycodes Logging Data Daily Use Survey Responses Q1000 Tables Using the REUWS Database Billing data End Use Data Survey Response Data How to Obtain the REUWS Database APPENDIX D RESIDENTIAL END USE MODELS Statistical Model of Average Total Household Use Introduction Model Estimation Procedure Scale Correction for Interpreting Coefficients of Binary Variables Interpretation of Total Household Use Model Development of Inferential Models Estimation Procedure for Inferential Models ix

10 Model Specification and Selection Development of Predictive System of End Use Equations Estimation Approach The Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SUR) Procedure Extending End Uses Models to Predict Total Monthly Use Estimation Process and Results Example Application of End Use Model Developing Predictions of Indoor and Outdoor Use REFERENCES ABBREVIATIONS x

11 TABLES 3.1 Sample comparisons for survey and logging groups Dates of data collection Bucket test results Water and sewer rates during logging periods Conservation measures implemented by participating utilities Annual water use statistics from initial survey samples Climate data and outdoor use, 12 study sites Survey response rates Mail survey question categories Mean, median, and mode number of toilets, baths, and showers from mail survey Saturation of dishwashers and clothes washers from mail survey Saturation of evaporative coolers and water treatment systems Mean number of residents in winter and summer Comparison of daily per capita indoor water use Comparison of daily per capita leakage rates Fixture utilization per capita per day, mean and standard deviation Fixture utilization per capita per day Toilet flush volume, per capita use, and utilizationes Shower per capita use, volume, duration, and flow rate Per capita clothes washing use Average indoor gallons per capita per day usage Percentage of average indoor gallons per capita per day usage Toilet statistics in cities with significantly different per capita usage Shower statistics in cities with significantly different per capita usage Statistical comparison of indoor use between logging periods Outdoor use using different estimation techniques Annual indoor, outdoor, and total use for the logging samples Outdoor use using different estimation techniques Irrigable area and application rate Water pressure ranges in distribution systems xi

12 5.18 Indoor gallons per capita per day water use in previous studies and the REUWS Fixture utilization values from REUWS and previous studies ULF and non-ulf toilet use across 12 study sites Comparison of ULF savings from other studies LF and non-lf daily shower use Comparison of LF showerhead savings from other studies Reported socioeconomic and home property summary, from survey Reported presence or absence of end use, from survey Reported irrigation technology, from survey Reported conservation measures, from survey Weather and climate patterns during logging periods Trace-allocated (and predicted) daily end use for logged Comparison of observed and predicted average daily water use Comparison of observed and predicted average daily water use A.1 Complete survey response summary, 14 study cities B.1 QA test 1 results B.2 QA test 2 results B.3 QA test 3 results B.4 QA test 4 results B.5 QA test 5 results B.6 QA test 6 results B.7 QA test 7 results B.8 QA test 8 results C.1 Keycode definitions.262 D.1 OLS Model of household billing data water use.273 D.2 Toilet water use model.277 D.3 Shower and bath water use model D.4 Faucet water use model 278 D.5 Dishwasher water use model D.6 Clothes washer water use model..279 D.7 Leak water use model..280 D.8 Outdoor water use model.281 xii

13 D.9 Other/unknown water use model.282 D.10 SUR model - cross model correlation between end uses.284 D.11 SUR model - ln(logged toilet use in gallons per day)..285 D.11 SUR model - ln(logged toilet use in gallons per day)..285 D.12 SUR model - ln(logged faucet/treatment use in gallons per day) 285 D.13 SUR model - ln(logged shower/bath use in gallons per day)..285 D.14 SUR model - ln(logged dishwasher use in gallons per day) 286 D.15 SUR model - ln(logged clothes washer use in gallons per day)..286 D.17 SUR model - ln(logged leak use in gallons per day) D.17 SUR model - ln(logged outdoor use in gallons per day).286 D.18 SUR model - ln(logged other/unknown use in gallons per day)..287 D.19 Adjusted billing model of household water use D.20 Adjusted billing model look-up table..298 xiii

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15 FIGURES ES.1 Mean daily per capita water use... xxiv ES.2 Indoor per capita water use percent... xxv ES.3 Peak instantaneous water use... xxix ES.4 Hourly use patterns... xxx ES.5 Indoor hourly use patterns... xxxi 3.1 Residential End Uses of Water Study flow chart Residential End Uses of Water Study sites One of the 110 data loggers used in the study Brainard data logger in the meter pit Sample flow trace from Trace Wizard showing a one hour Sample flow trace from Trace Wizard showing a two hour view Sample flow trace from Trace Wizard showing a six hour view Sample flow trace from Trace Wizard showing a two hour view Sample flow trace showing a one hour view Sample flow trace analysis comparison form Participating house in Boulder, Colorado Participating house in Denver, Colorado Participating house in Eugene, Oregon during data logger installation Participating house in Seattle, Washington Participating house in Tampa, Florida and Tampa Water employee Philip Elkins Participating house in Waterloo, Ontario Participating house in Phoenix, Arizona Participating house in Scottsdale, Arizona during data logger installation Participating house in San Diego, California during data logger installation Participating house from the Walnut Valley Water District, California Participating house in Lompoc, California Participating house from Las Virgenes Municipal Water District Annual water use distribution, 12 REUWS study sites, 12,055 homes Box plot of per household annual water use Net annual ET for turf vs. mean annual per household outdoor use xv

16 4.16 Typical survey response curve Swimming pool and hot tub saturation rates, all study cities Highest level of educational attainment, all study cities Combined household income, all study cities Percent of homes irrigating 3 times per week or more, all study cities Conservation importance, all study cities Perception of drought, all study cities Scatter diagram of average daily water use Box diagram of average daily water use Scatter diagram of average daily indoor water use Box diagram of average daily indoor water use Indoor per capita water use percentage including leakage Average per capita per day usage (gpcd) Distribution of mean household daily per capita indoor water use Indoor water use by household size Distribution of mean daily leakage Toilet flush distribution, all recorded toilet flushes Shower volume distribution diagram Shower duration distribution Shower flow rate distribution Clothes washer volume per load distribution Outdoor use vs. net ET Irrigation application rate vs. net ET Histogram of percent of net ET applied to irrigable area Scatter diagram of irrigation application rates vs. net ET Peak instantaneous flow rate distribution Distribution of peak logged day demand Hourly use pattern, averaged for all 12 study sites Disaggregated indoor hourly use patterns, averaged across 12 study sites Analytical process of model development and verification Process of extending end use models to predict average total monthly use A.1 Sample survey input form xvi

17 FOREWORD The AWWA Research Foundation is a nonprofit corporation that is dedicated to the implementation of a research effort to help utilities respond to regulatory requirements and traditional high-priority concerns of the industry. The research agenda is developed through a process of consultation with subscribers and drinking water professionals. Under the umbrella of a Strategic Research Plan, the Research Advisory Council prioritizes the suggested projects based upon current and future needs, applicability, and past work: the recommendations are forwarded to the Board of Trustees for final selection. The foundation also sponsors research projects through the unsolicited proposal process; the Collaborative Research, Research Applications, and Tailored Collaboration programs; and various joint research efforts with organizations such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and the Association of California Water Agencies. This publication is a result of one of these sponsored studies, and it is hoped that its findings will be applied in communities throughout the world. The following report serves not only as a means of communicating the results of the water industry s centralized research program, but also as a tool to enlist the further support of the nonmember utilities and individuals. Projects are managed closely from their inception to the final report by the foundation s staff and large cadre of volunteers who willingly contribute their time and expertise. The foundation serves a planning and management function and awards contracts to other institutions such as water utilities, universities, and engineering firms. The funding for this research effort comes primarily from the Subscription Program, through which water utilities subscribe to the research program and make an annual payment proportionate to the volume of water they deliver and consultants and manufacturers subscribe based on their annual billings. The program offers a cost effective and fair method for funding research in the public interest. A broad spectrum of water supply issues is addressed by the foundation s research agenda: resources, treatment and operations, distribution and storage, water quality and analysis, toxicology, economics, and management. The ultimate purpose of the coordinated effort is to assist water suppliers to provide the highest possible quality of water economically and reliably. The "end uses" of water is a fundamental planning issue. Water conservation and resource planners need an accurate picture of how consumers use water. Engineers rely upon xvii

18 end use information to identify design capacity and other engineering parameters. Most existing end use information is extremely site specific and often of little value outside of a particular region. Unfortunately, engineers and planers are left to estimate end uses without the basis of sound analytical data. This project developed an extensive database of end use information. The database was developed using sophisticated data logging techniques and computer based analytical models. From the data and models, accurate end uses of water estimates were developed. Julius Ciaccia, Jr. Chair, Board of Trustess AWWA Research Foundation James F. Manwaring, P.E. Executive Director AWWA Research Foundation xviii

19 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research would never have been completed without the cooperation of more than 5,000 households across the continent who completed mail surveys and the 1,200 households that agreed to participate in the detailed end use study. Our heartfelt thanks to each and every one. This research project was made possible by AWWARF and the following municipalities and water providers: City of Boulder Office of Water Conservation, Denver Water, Eugene Water and Electric Board, Seattle Public Utilities, Northshore Water District, Highline Water District, Bellevue Water Department, City of San Diego Water, Tampa Water Department, Phoenix Water Department, Tempe and Scottsdale Water Departments, Regional Municipality of Waterloo, Walnut Valley Water District, Las Virgenes Municipal Water District of Southern California, City of Lompoc, Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, Southwestern Florida Water Management District, Arizona Municipal Water Users Association, Santa Barbara County Flood Control and Water Conservation District and Water Agency, California Department of Water Resources, Sonoma County Water Agency, North Marin Water District. The project team wishes express our sincere thanks to the following individuals and groups for their assistance on this project: David Lewis, Laurel Stadjuhar, Jeff Harpring, Beorn Courtney, Mark Alexander, Eric Loew, Paul Lander, Bob Harburg, Don Vetterling, Jim Heiser, Edward Pokorney, John Loughrey, David Allen, Steve West, Brenda Sirois, Richard Head, Al Dietemann, Tim Skeel, Fanny Yee, Patricia Burgess, Steve Wieneke, Judy Burdin, Jim Echert, Kim Drury, Marsi Steirer, Luis Generoso, Kathy Fry, Arnold Niemann, Robert Lauria, Phillip Elkins, Tom Babcock, Andy Terry, Lisa Helm, Vonnie Caraballo, Karen Warner, Oliver Ncube, Pete Smith, Ken Sharratt, Deborah Walker, Sean Smith, Derek Berkhout, Darcy Jones, James Robinson, Denis Hernandez, Scott Harris, Randall Orton, Lynn Anderson-Rodriguez, Charlie Pike, Gary Keefe, Susan Zavolta, Mario Villareal, Jim Heaney, Tony Gregg, Bill Hoffman, Dan Rodrigo, Cathy Pieroni, Barbara Nadon, Warren Teitz, Mike Hollis, Cliff Pugh, John Balliew, John Sweeten, Ed Craddock, Robert Almy, Chris DeGabriele, Bill Jacoby, George Martin, John Wiedmann, John Flowers, Randy Poole, Robert Allen, the AWWA Water Conservation Planning and Evaluation Committee and the AWWA Water Conservation Division Board. xix

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21 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Where is water used in single-family homes? How much water is used for toilets, showers, clothes washers, faucets, dishwashers, and all other purposes? What component of total use can be attributed to each specific water using device and fixture? How does water use vary across single-family homes? What are the factors that influence single-family residential water use? How does water use differ in households equipped with conserving fixtures? The Residential End Uses of Water Study (REUWS) was designed to help answer these and other questions and to provide specific data on the end uses of water in single-family residential settings across North America. The end uses of water include all the places where water is used in a single-family home such as toilets, showers, clothes washers, faucets, lawn watering, etc. Accurately measuring and modeling the residential end uses of water and the effectiveness of conservation efforts has been the Achilles heel of urban water planning for many years. Understanding where water is put to use by the consumer is critical information for utilities, planners, and conservation professionals. Empirical evidence of the effectiveness of specific conservation measures can be used to improve the design of conservation programs and can provide justification for continued support of conservation efforts. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The American Water Works Association Research Foundation (AWWARF) and 22 municipalities, water utilities, water purveyors, water districts, and water providers funded this study. Goals of this research included: Providing specific data on the end uses of water in residential settings across the continent. Assembling data on disaggregated indoor and outdoor uses. Identifying variations in water used for each fixture or appliance according to a variety of factors. Developing predictive models to forecast residential water demand. xxi

22 This report represents a time and place snapshot of how water is used in single-family homes in twelve North American locations. Similarities and differences among "end uses" were tabulated for each location, analyzed, and summarized. Great care was taken to create a statistically significant representative sample of customer for each of the twelve locations. However, these twelve locations are not statistically representative of all North American locations. Although a concerted effort was made to recruit a representative sample of households at each location, some households chose not to participate. While this may place some limits on the statistical inferences and generalizations which can be drawn from the data, it does not diminish the contribution made by these data to improving understanding of residential water use. Analyses are presented for each of the participating cities individually and for the pooled sample of 1,188 households. Creating national water use "averages" was not an objective of this study. The pooled results are presented for summary and comparative purposes alone. Two major contributions of this study are demonstrating the feasibility of identifying and measuring the different ways households use water and describing and analyzing variations in water used for specific purposes between different households. Armed with this insight, individual water utilities interested in reducing water demands in single-family homes now have a better tool to assess their own conservation potential. The diversity of the water use data found over the twelve locations illustrates the importance of utility specific information on how individual behavior influences home water use. However, a striking conclusion of this report is in the similarities between these twelve locations in the amount of water fixtures and appliances use. The range in the amount of water used by hardware such as toilets, washing machines, showerheads, dishwashers, faucets, and fixture leaks is now documented and surprisingly similar - suggesting that this portion of the data has significant "transfer" value across North America. The predictive models developed as part of this study to forecast indoor demand significantly increase the confidence in explaining the water use variations observed. The major benefit of modeling is to provide a predictive tool with a high transfer value for use by other utilities. xxii

23 APPROACH The project team developed a multifaceted approach to accomplish the research objectives set out for this study. After invitations were sent to utilities and water providers across the United States and Canada, 12 study sites volunteered to participate and partially fund this research. These 12 study sites were: Boulder, Colorado; Denver, Colorado; Eugene, Oregon; Seattle, Washington; San Diego, California; Tampa, Florida; Phoenix, Arizona; Tempe and Scottsdale, Arizona; the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, Ontario; Walnut Valley Water District, California; Las Virgenes Municipal Water District, California; and Lompoc, California. A detailed and rigorous workplan to obtain data from each study site was developed by the project team. Data collected from each study site included: historic billing records from a systematic random sample of 1,000 single-family detached residential accounts; household level information obtained through a detailed mail survey sent to each of the selected 1,000 households; approximately four weeks of specific data on the end uses of water collected from a total of 1,188 households (approximately 100 per study site), data collection was divided into two, two-week intervals spaced in time to attempt to capture summer (peak) and winter (off-peak mostly indoor water use) time frames; supplemental information including climate data and information specific to each participating utility. In this study, water consumption for various end uses was measured from a significant sample of residential housing across North America using compact data loggers and a PC-based flow trace analysis software. A flow trace is a record of flow through a residential water meter recorded in 10 second intervals which provides sufficient resolution to identify the patterns of specific fixtures within the household. The flow trace analysis software disaggregates this virtually continuous flow trace into individual water use events such as a toilet flush or clothes washer cycle and then an analyst implements signal processing tools to assign fixture designations to each event. The data assembled for this research effort include: A sizable residential water use database containing nearly one million individual water use events collected from 1,188 residences in the 12 study sites; extensive household level information obtained through the mail survey completed by approximately 6,000 households, and historic water billing records from 12,000 residences. All of this information was collected to provide answers to many long xxiii

24 standing questions about how much and where water is used in the residential setting and to provide estimates of the savings available from various conservation measures. In addition to presenting the findings from the data collection effort, the project team also developed predictive models which incorporated the detailed end use information and household level socioeconomic data. A research study of this magnitude must rely on a variety of assumptions which are taken as "givens". It is recognized that changes in some of these assumptions could impact the results, but the limits of the project scope and funding did not allow exploration of some of the following factors: 1. The accuracy of the billing consumption histories provided by participating utilities 2. The accuracy of mail survey responses 3. The timeframe of monitoring capturing "representative" indoor water use for each home 4. Capturing the precise weather related use within the monitoring timeframe needed to analyze the variables associated with outdoor use RESEARCH FINDINGS The primary goal of this study was to provide specific data on the end uses of water in residential settings across the continent. The accomplishment of this and the other stated goals of the REUWS are summarized in the findings below. Annual Use Average annual water use, based on historic billing records from approximately 1,000 accounts in each of the 12 study sites, ranged from 69,900 gallons per household per year in Waterloo and Cambridge, Ontario to 301,100 gallons per household per year in Las Virgenes MWD. The mean annual water use for the 12 combined sites was 146,100 gallons per household per year with a standard deviation of 103,500 gallons and a median of 123,200 gallons (n=12,075). Across all study sites 42 percent of annual water use was for indoor purposes and 58 percent for outdoor purposes. This mix of indoor and outdoor was strongly influenced by annual weather patterns and, as expected, sites in hot climates like Phoenix and Tempe and xxiv

25 Scottsdale had a higher percentage of outdoor use (59 67 percent) while sites in cooler, wetter climates like Seattle and Tampa and Waterloo had much lower percentages of outdoor use (22 38 percent). The net annual ET requirement for turf grass ranged from inches in Waterloo to inches in Phoenix, Tempe, and Scottsdale. Daily Per Capita Use Per capita daily indoor water use was calculated for each study site and for the entire study using data logging results from 28,015 complete logged days to calculate water consumption and mail survey responses to count the number of people per household. Across all 1,188 study homes in the 12 study sites the mean per capita indoor daily water use was 69.3 gallons (including leakage). Results are shown in Figures ES.1. Toilet use was calculated at 18.5 gallons per capita per day (gpcd), clothes washer use was 15.0 gpcd, shower use was 11.6 gpcd, faucet use was 10.9 gpcd, leaks were 9.5 gpcd, baths were 1.2 gpcd, dishwasher use was 1.0 gpcd, and other domestic use was 1.6 gpcd. Mean indoor per capita use in each study site ranged from 57.1 gpcd in Seattle, Washington to 83.5 gpcd in Eugene, Oregon. Liters Per Capita Per Day Dishwasher Bath Other domestic Leak Faucet Shower Clothes washer Toilet INDOOR 69.3 OUTDOOR UNKNOWN 1.7 TOTAL Gallons Per Capita Per Day Figure ES.1 Mean daily per capita water use, 12 study sites xxv

26 The relative percent of per capita water used for indoor purposes across all twelve study sites is shown in Figure ES.2. OTHER DOMESTIC 2.2% LEAK 13.7% BATH 1.7% CLOTHES WASHER 21.7% DISHWASHER 1.4% TOILET 26.7% FAUCET 15.7% SHOWER 16.8% Figure ES.2 Indoor per capita use percent by fixture, 12 study sites Leaks In the REUWS it was found that a small number of homes were responsible for the majority of the leakage. While the average daily leakage was 21.9 gallons, the standard deviation was 54.1 indicating a wide spread in the data. The median leakage rate was only 4.2 gallons per household per day. Nearly 67 percent of the study homes leaked an average of 10 gallons per day or less, but 5.5 percent of the homes leaked an average of more than 100 gallons per day. Saying it another way, 10% of the homes logged were responsible for 58% of the leaks found. xxvi

27 In the 100 data logged homes with the highest average daily indoor water use, leaks accounted for 24.5 percent of average daily use. These top 100 homes averaged 90.4 gallons per day (gpd) of leaks compared with 21.9 gpd for the entire 1,188 home data logged group. Clothes Washers A total of 26,981 loads of laundry were recorded over the 28,015 logged days during the study. Across all 1,188 logged households in the REUWS, the average loads of laundry per day was 0.96 (this includes the 26 logged homes which reported they did not have a clothes washer on the mail survey). The mean daily per capita clothes washer usage across all households was 15.0 gpcd. The average volume per load of clothes was 40.9 gallons with a standard deviation of 12.2 and a median volume of 39.8 gallons. Seventy-five percent of the observed loads were between 25 and 50 gallons. The range in volumes indicates the variety of clothes washers in service which includes extra large top loading machines and low volume horizontal axis washers. Also influencing the distribution is the tremendous number of wash settings available on modern clothes washers. Users are often able to individually adjust the size of the load, the number of cycles, the water temperature, etc. Fixture Utilization The data collection technique employed in the REUWS made it possible to calculate mean daily fixture usage for toilets, showers, clothes washers, dishwashers, baths, faucets, etc. Study participants across all 12 study sites flushed the toilet an average of 5.05 times per person per day. The participants took an average of 0.75 showers and baths combined per person per day. Clothes washers were run an average of 0.37 times per person per day and dishwashers were run an average of 0.1 times per person per day. Faucet utilization was calculated in terms of minutes per capita per day rather than as a count of faucet uses per day. Study residents ran their faucets an average of 8.1 minutes per capita per day. xxvii

28 ULF Toilet Savings Of the over 289,000 toilet flushes recorded during the two year end use monitoring portion of the REUWS, 14.5 percent of the flushes were less than 2.0 gpf, 34.7 percent of the flushes were between 2 and 3.5 gpf, and 50.8 percent were greater than 4 gpf. Of the 1188 data logged homes in the REUWS, 101 (8.5 percent) used ULF toilets almost exclusively. This number was determined by first calculating the average flush volume for each study residence. Homes with an average volume per flush of less than 2.0 gallons over the 4 week data logging period were classified as ULF only homes meaning that while they may have other units, they use ULF units almost exclusively. The 101 ULF only homes used an average of 24.1 gallons per household per day (gpd) for toilet purposes. The residents of these homes flushed the toilet an average of 5.04 times per person per day and used an average of 9.5 gpcd for toilet purposes. Another 311 study homes (26.2 percent) were found to have a mixture of ULF and non- ULF toilets. These homes were distinguished by counting the number of toilet flushes which used less than 2.0 gallons per flush. Homes that had six or more ULF flushes (and who were not part of the "ULF only" group were placed in the "mixed" toilet group. Homes with a mixture of ULF and non-ulf toilets used an average of 45.4 gpd for toilet purposes. The residents of these homes flushed the toilet an average of 5.39 times per person per day and used an average of 17.6 gpcd for toilet purposes. The remaining 776 study homes we placed in the non-ulf group. The non-ulf" study homes averaged 47.9 gpd for toilets. Residents in these homes flushed an average of 4.92 times per person per day and used an average of 20.1 gpcd. The net potential savings when comparing ULF only homes from this study to the "non-ulf" homes is therefore is 10.5 gpcd. LF Shower Savings So called "Low Flow" shower heads are designed to restrict flow to a rate of 2.5 gpm or less. By calculating the modal shower flow rate for each shower at each study residence it was possible to separate homes which always showered in the low-flow range (LF houses), homes which occasionally showered in the low flow range (Mixed houses), or homes which showered exclusively above the low flow range (Non-LF houses). About 15 percent of the study homes xxviii

29 showered in the low flow range exclusively, 60.4 percent occasionally showered in the low flow range, and 24.5 percent showered exclusively above the low flow range. The LF shower homes used an average of 20.7 gpd and 8.8 gpcd for showering, while the non-lf shower homes used an average of 34.8 gpd and 13.3 gpcd. However, the duration of the average shower in the LF shower homes was 8 minutes and 30 seconds, 1 minute and 48 seconds longer than the average shower duration in the non-lf homes which was 6 minutes and 48 seconds. Peak Use At the end of the data collection effort of the REUWS, 28,015 complete days of data (also called logged days ) were collected from the 1,188 participating study homes. Frequency distributions of the peak instantaneous flow rate observed during each of the logged days for each study house were developed. The frequency distribution, shown in Figure E.S.3 shows the observed peak instantaneous flow irrespective of water use category (indoor and outdoor). Typically the highest flows in the single-family setting occur during irrigation and lawn watering or when re-filling a swimming pool. The peak flow need only have been observed for a single 10-second interval to be included in these analyses. The majority (more than 85%) of water meters used in this study were 5/8 inch or ¾ inch in size. The peak flow capacity of a 5/8 inch meter is approximately 25 gpm and the peak flow capacity of a ¾ inch meter is approximately 35 gpm. The largest water size meter used in this study was a 1 ½ inch meter (quite unusual in the single-family sector). This size of meter has an approximate peak flow capacity of 100 gpm. Because days without any water use were excluded from this analysis, a total of 27,579 logged days are included in this distribution. The highest peak flow recorded in this study was gpm. The mean peak flow was 8.23 gpm, the standard deviation was 5.02 gpm, and the median peak flow was 6.71 gpm. More than 90% of the recorded peak instantaneous flows were less than or equal to 15 gpm. xxix

30 Relative Frequency 20% 18% 16% 14% 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% Peak Instantaneous Flow (gpm), n=27,579 Figure ES.3 Daily peak instantaneous flow rates, 12 study sites Hourly Use In the REUWS, because the start time of each water use event was stored along with the volume, duration, flow rate, etc. it was possible to sum the volume of water used during each hour of the day and develop figures showing hourly water use patterns. The time pattern of overall residential water use followed a classic diurnal pattern shown in Figure ES.4 with four distinct typical characteristics: a. Lowest usage during the night (11 p.m. to 5 a.m.) b. Highest usage in the morning (5 a.m. to 11 a.m.) c. Moderate usage during the midday (11 a.m. to 6 p.m.) d. High evening usage (6 p.m. to 11 p.m.) This same diurnal pattern in overall water use was observed in all 12 study sites. xxx

31 1:00 AM 2:00 AM 3:00 AM 4:00 AM 5:00 AM 6:00 AM 7:00 AM 8:00 AM 9:00 AM 10:00 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 1:00 PM 2:00 PM 3:00 PM 4:00 PM 5:00 PM 6:00 PM 7:00 PM 8:00 PM 9:00 PM 10:00 PM 11:00 PM 12:00 AM Percent Use 8% 7% 6% 5% Indoor hourly use 4% 3% 2% Outdoor hourly use Total hourly use 1% 0% Hour Figure ES.4 Hourly use patterns, 12 study sites Indoor and outdoor use both followed diurnal patterns similar to the overall pattern, but with some important differences. Outdoor use ramped up steeply at 5 a.m., several hours earlier than the morning increase for indoor use which increased at 7 a.m. Outdoor use decreased significantly from 10 a.m. until 5 p.m. while indoor use reached a peak a 9 a.m. and decreased slowly until 4 p.m. Outdoor use achieved a secondary peak in the early evening from 6 p.m. to 9 p.m. Indoor use increased slightly from 6 p.m. to 10 p.m. before decreasing for the night. Indoor use was extremely low from 1 a.m. to 5 a.m. When divided into component end uses, the hourly pattern of indoor use presents a set of separate curves of usage as shown in Figure ES.5. The largest component piece of indoor use, toilets, follow a diurnal pattern a morning peak between 7 a.m. and 10 a.m., moderately high use from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m., an evening peak from 5 p.m. to 11 p.m. and lowest usage from 11 p.m. to 5 a.m. Clothes washer usage peaks a little later than toilet usage, from 9 a.m. to 1 p.m. Washer use remains high from 1 p.m. to 9 p.m. and then declines steeply overnight when it is virtually xxxi

32 1:00 AM 2:00 AM 3:00 AM 4:00 AM 5:00 AM 6:00 AM 7:00 AM 8:00 AM 9:00 AM 10:00 AM 11:00 AM 12:00 PM 1:00 PM 2:00 PM 3:00 PM 4:00 PM 5:00 PM 6:00 PM 7:00 PM 8:00 PM 9:00 PM 10:00 PM 11:00 PM 12:00 AM Percent Use non existent until 8 a.m. when it ramps up towards the morning peak. Shower usage has a very high peak in the morning from 6 a.m. to 11 a.m. and then decreases significantly during the day until 6 p.m. when there is a smaller peak which continues until 11 p.m. Faucet usage is the only large indoor use which peaks in the evening from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m. Faucet use during the day is fairly consistent after a morning peak from 7 a.m. to 11 a.m. 3% 3% Toilets 2% 2% Showers Clothes Washers Faucets 1% Dishwashers Baths 1% Other Domestic 0% Hour Figure ES.5 Indoor hourly use patterns, 12 study sites End Use Models The end use models developed for this study confirm some previous beliefs and offer additional insights about the time-series and cross-sectional phenomena that affect water use. These models also point out important relationships between specific end uses and socioeconomic factors obtained through the mail survey. This represents the first time that differences in water use at the end use level have been attributed to causal factors related to weather, climate, price, and socioeconomic characteristics. xxxii

33 Interpretation of the modeling effort include the following relationships between the end uses of water and various socioeconomic factors: Toilet Use The model estimation results for toilet flushing found household size to be an important indicator of water use for toilet flushing. The modeling result suggests that a one percent increase in household size would be expected to bring about a seven-tenths of one percent increase in water use for toilet flushing. Since an addition to household size would typically be much larger in percentage terms (e.g., an addition of one more person to a two person household is a 50 percent increase), the marginal impact of adding another person is quite large. However, the model estimates suggest that the impact on water use for toilet flushing depends on the age group of the new addition. The results imply that the addition of non-adults increases use for toilet flushing at a lower rate than the addition of an adult. The amount of water used for toilet flushing is negatively related to the number of persons employed full-time outside of the home. For those employed outside the home, some flushing at home is replaced by flushing at work. The size of the house in square feet can be interpreted as a surrogate for standard of living and may also be indicative of the number of toilets at a residence. Results indicated that water use for toilet flushing increases with the size of the house. On average as a group, renters were shown to use about 10 percent more water for toilet flushing. Those who irrigate and those who have swimming pools were shown to use more water on average for toilet flushing. The toilet use model showed a statistically significant, yet inelastic price effect. A onepercent increase in marginal price was estimated to lead to a 0.15 percent decrease in water use. The model estimates indicated that the amount of water used for toilet flushing depends on the time of year. For instance, households logged from September to November systematically used about 12 percent more water than those who were logged in the winter. The set of binary variables for the decade in which the home was built showed an interesting pattern. Results suggest that homes built in the 1950s and 1960s were more likely to have been retrofitted with new, more efficient, toilets and that homes built in the 1990s were installed with efficient toilets. One may deduce from these findings that homes built in the 1970s and 1980s may be better targets for retrofit and ultra-low-flow toilet (ULFT) rebate programs. xxxiii

34 The model verified that ULFTs reduce water usage. Households for which logging traces indicated all ultra-low-flow events used 40 percent less water for flushing than other sample households. Evaluated at the mean usage for household that are not completely retrofitted (47.9 gallons per household per day allocated to toilets), this implies an average water savings of 19.2 gallons per household per day for the completely retrofitted group, given the effects of the other variables in the model. In per capita terms, this translates to a water savings of 7 gallons per person per day. Consistent with this finding, water use for toilet flushing is shown to decrease with the survey-reported fraction of toilets that are of the ultra-low-flow variety. The coefficient of this variable suggests that fully retrofitted households on average use about 10 percent less water for toilet flushing than households that have all non-conserving devices, everything else held constant. Adding this measurement to the savings implied by the ULT-only coefficient suggests total average savings from complete toilet retrofit of about 9 gallons per capita per day. Shower and Bath Use The number of persons per household was a significant factor in determining the amount of water used for showers and baths. Water use for showers and baths increased with household size and children and teens used incrementally more water for showers and baths than did adults. In addition, shower and bath use increased with the number of persons employed outside the home, suggesting a higher frequency of use for those who must prepare for work. Shower and bath use was positively related to household income, though the response to changes in income was estimated to be small. Those who rent, on average used more water for showers and baths. Irrigators also displayed more water use for showers and baths than did non-irrigators. The estimated price elasticity of shower and bath use was greater than the price elasticity for toilets and suggests that a one percent increase in price will bring about a 0.35 percent decrease in water use. Households that reported having all low-flow showerheads on average used about 9 percent less water for showers than households that are not completely retrofitted (everything else held constant). xxxiv

35 Faucet and Water Treatment System Use Faucet use is strongly and positively related to household size. The model suggests that small children add less to total faucet use than do teens and adults. Similar to the toilet model, faucet use is negatively related to the number of persons working outside the home. Faucet use is positively related to household square footage, which may act as a surrogate for the number of faucets in the home. Marginal price is positively related to faucet use, though the marginal price coefficient is not significant from a statistical perspective. As might be expected, faucet use is lower for those who have an automatic dishwasher. Faucet use displays a negative relationship with the reported fraction of showerheads that are of the low-flow variety. This may imply a tendency for households to install faucet aerators when they retrofit their showerheads. Dishwasher Use Household size is a prominent variable for explaining dishwasher use. Unlike the other indoor models, no distinct effects were detected for the number of teens or children. However, dishwasher use is negatively related to the number of persons employed full-time outside the home. Dishwasher use is shown to be responsive to marginal price, with an estimated price elasticity of Dishwasher use is also slightly responsive to household income, with an estimated income elasticity of Finally, households that reported conserving behavior related to indoor use (such as washing fuller dishwasher loads) used about 7 percent less water for dishwashing. Clothes Washer Use Consistent with the other models for indoor end uses, household size has a strong and positive influence on the amount of water used for clothes washing. Clothes washer use increases incrementally with the number of teens living in the household and the number of persons working full-time outside the home. The coefficient of the marginal price variable retains a positive sign, but is not statistically significant. Clothes washer use is positively related to income, however the coefficient on income also shows relatively low statistical significance. xxxv

36 Outdoor Use Outdoor use is taken as the sum of logged use allocated to irrigation and swimming pools. Since nearly all sample households reported to be irrigators, while only a small number had swimming pools, the impact of pool use was measured using a binary (0/1) variable in the outdoor model for presence of a pool. On average, homes with swimming pools are estimated to use more than twice as much water outdoors than homes without swimming pools, everything else held constant. Outdoor use displays a relatively strong and positive relationship with home square footage. Inasmuch as this variable acts as a surrogate for standard of living, this is consistent with the notion of a higher ability to pay for this more discretionary use. As expected, the amount of water used for outdoor purposes (primarily irrigation) is positively related to the size of the lot (another potential proxy for standard of living) and the percentage of the lot that is irrigable landscape. The following are other specific interpretations of the results of the outdoor end use model: Homes with in-ground sprinkler systems use 35 percent more water outdoors than those who do not have an in-ground system Households that employ an automatic timer to control their irrigation systems used 47 percent more water outdoors than those that do not Households with drip irrigation systems use 16 percent more water outdoors than those without drip irrigation systems Households who water with a hand-held hose use 33 percent less water outdoors than other households Households who maintain a garden use 30 percent more water outdoors than those without a garden Households with access to another, non-utility, water source displayed 25 percent lower outdoor use than those who used only utility-supplied water Finally, outdoor use is found to be relatively sensitive to the marginal price of water. The estimated price elasticity of 0.82 for outdoor use is larger in magnitude than the price xxxvi