Introduction to Flight

Transcription

1 Introduction to Flight Sixth Edition John D. Anderson, Jr. Curator for Aerodynamics, National Air and Space Museum Smithsonian Institution Professor Emeritus University of Maryland Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, Wl New York San Francisco St. Louis Bangkok Bogota Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto

2 CONTENTS About the Author iii Preface to the Sixth Edition Preface to the First Edition xv Chapter 1 The First Aeronautical Engineers Introduction Very Early Developments Sir George Cayley ( ) The True Inventor of the Airplane The Interregnum From 1853 to Otto Lilienthal ( ) The Glider Man Percy Pilcher ( ) Extending the Glider Tradition Aeronautics Comes to America Wilbur ( ) and Orville ( ) Wright Inventors of the First Practical Airplane The Aeronautical Triangle Langley, the Wrights, and Glenn Curtiss The Problem of Propulsion Faster and Higher Summary 49 Bibliography 50 Chapter 2 Fundamental Thoughts Fundamental Physical Quantities of a Flowing Gas Pressure 56 xiii Density Temperature Flow Velocity and Streamlines The Source of All Aerodynamic Forces Equation of State for a Perfect Gas Discussion of Units Specific Volume Anatomy of the Airplane Anatomy of a Space Vehicle Historical Note: The NACA and NASA Summary 101 Bibliography 101 Problems 102 Chapter 3 The Standard Atmosphere Definition of Altitude Hydrostatic Equation Relation between Geopotential and Geometric Altitudes Definition of the Standard Atmosphere Pressure, Temperature, and Density Altitudes Historical Note: The Standard Atmosphere Summary 123 Bibliography 124 Problems 124

3 Chapter 4 Basic Aerodynamics Continuity Equation Incompressible and Compressible Flow Momentum Equation A Comment Elementary Thermodynamics Isentropic Flow Energy Equation Summary of Equations Speed of Sound Low-Speed Subsonic Wind Tunnels Measurement of Airspeed Incompressible Flow Subsonic Compressible Flow Supersonic Flow Summary Some Additional Considerations More about Compressible Flow More about Equivalent Airspeed Supersonic Wind Tunnels and Rocket Engines Discussion of Compressibility Introduction to Viscous Flow Results for a Laminar Boundary Layer Results for a Turbulent Boundary Layer Compressibility Effects on Skin Friction Transition Flow Separation Summary of Viscous Effects on Drag Historical Note: Bernoulli and Euler Historical Note: The Pitot Tube Historical Note: The First Wind Tunnels Historical Note: Osborne Reynolds and His Number Historical Note: Prandtl and the Development of the Boundary Layer Concept Summary 247 Bibliography 250 Problems 250 Chapter 5 Airfoils, Wings, and Other Aerodynamic Shapes Introduction Airfoil Nomenclature Lift, Drag, and Moment Coefficients Airfoil Data Infinite Versus Finite Wings Pressure Coefficient Obtaining Lift Coefficient from C p Compressibility Correction for Lift Coefficient Critical Mach Number and Critical Pressure Coefficient Drag-Divergence Mach Number Wave Drag (at Supersonic Speeds) Summary of Airfoil Drag Finite Wings Calculation of Induced Drag Change in the Lift Slope Swept Wings Flaps A Mechanism for High Lift Aerodynamics of Cylinders and Spheres How Lift Is Produced Some Alternative Explanations Historical Note: Airfoils and Wings The Wright Brothers 374* British and U.S. Airfoils ( ) 374

4 Contents Early NACA Four-Digit Airfoils Later NACA Airfoils Modem Airfoil Work Finite Wings Historical Note: Ernst Mach and His Number Historical Note: The First Manned Supersonic Flight Historical Note: The X-15 First Manned Hypersonic Airplane and Stepping-Stone to the Space Shuttle Summary 390 Bibliography 391 Problems 391 Chapter 6 Elements of Airplane Performance Introduction: The Drag Polar Equations of Motion Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity Power Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight Power Available and Maximum Velocity Reciprocating Engine-Propeller Combination Jet Engine Altitude Effects on Power Required and Available Rate of Climb Gliding Flight Absolute and Service Ceilings Time to Climb Range and Endurance Propeller-Driven Airplane Physical Considerations Quantitative Formulation Breguet Formulas (Propeller-Driven Airplane) Range and Endurance Jet Airplane Physical Considerations Quantitative Formulation Relations between Cp,o and C D j Takeoff Performance Landing Performance Turning Flight and the V-n Diagram Accelerated Rate of Climb (Energy Method) Special Considerations for Supersonic Airplanes Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) A Philosophy of Conceptual Airplane Design A Comment, and More about the Aspect Ratio Historical Note: Drag Reduction The NACA Cowling and the Fillet Historical Note: Early Predictions of Airplane Performance Historical Note: Breguet and the Range Formula Historical Note: Aircraft Design Evolution and Revolution Summary 522 Bibliography 524 Problems 525 Chapter 7 Principles of Stability and Control Introduction Definition of Stability and Control Static Stability Dynamic Stability Control Partial Derivative 539

5 Contents 7.3 Moments on the Airplane Absolute Angle of Attack Criteria for Longitudinal Static Stability Quantitative Discussion: Contribution of the Wing to M cg Contribution of the Tail to M cg Total Pitching Moment about the Center of Gravity Equations for Longitudinal Static Stability Neutral Point Static Margin Concept of Static Longitudinal Control Calculation of Elevator Angle to Trim Stick-Fixed versus Stick-Free Static Stability Elevator Hinge Moment Stick-Free Longitudinal Static Stability Directional Static Stability Lateral Static Stability A Comment Historical Note: The Wright Brothers versus the European Philosophy of Stability and Control Historical Note: The Development of Flight Controls Historical Note: The "Tuck-Under" Problem Summary 586 Bibliography 587 Problems 587 Chapter 8 Space Flight (Astronautics) Introduction Differential Equations Lagrange's Equation Orbit Equation Force and Energy Equation of Motion Space Vehicle Trajectories Some Basic Aspects Kepler's Laws The Vis-Viva (Energy) Equation Some Orbital Maneuvers Plane Changes Orbital Transfers: Single-Impulse and Hohmann Transfers Interplanetary Trajectories Hyperbolic Trajectories Sphere of Influence Heliocentric Trajectories Method of Patched Conies Gravity-Assist Trajectories Lunar Transfer Spacecraft Attitude Control Introduction to Earth and Planetary Entry Exponential Atmosphere General Equations of Motion for Atmospheric Entry Application to Ballistic Entry Entry Heating Lifting Entry, with Application to the Space Shuttle Historical Note: Kepler Historical Note: Newton and the Law of Gravitation Historical Note: Lagrange Historical Note: Unmanned Space Flight Historical Note: Manned Space Flight Summary 685 Bibliography 687 Problems 687

6 Contents XI Chapter 9 Propulsion Introduction Propeller Reciprocating Engine Jet Propulsion The Thrust Equation Turbojet Engine Thrust Buildup for a Turbojet Engine Turbofan Engine Ramjet Engine Rocket Engine Rocket Propellants Some Considerations Liquid Propellants Solid Propellants A Comment Rocket Equation Rocket Staging Propellant Requirements for Spacecraft Trajectory Maneuvers Electric Propulsion Electron-Ion Thruster Magnetoplasmadynamic Thruster Arc-Jet Thruster A Comment Historical Note: Early Propeller Development Historical Note: Early Development of the Internal Combustion Engine for Aviation Historical Note: Inventors of Early Jet Engines Historical Note: Early History of Rocket Engines Summary 766 Bibliography 767 Problems 767 Chapter 10 Flight Vehicle Structures and Materials Introduction Some Physics of Solid Materials Stress Strain Other Cases Stress-Strain Diagram Some Elements of an Aircraft Structure Beams Box Structures Materials Fatigue Some Comments Historical Note: Evolution of Flight Structures 794 Bibliography 805 Problems 806 Chapter 11 Hypersonic Vehicles Introduction Physical Aspects of Hypersonic Flow Thin Shock Layers Entropy Layer Viscous Interaction High-Temperature Effects Low-Density Flow Recapitulation Newtonian Law for Hypersonic Flow Some Comments about Hypersonic Airplanes Summary 834 Bibliography 834 Problems 834

7 xii Contents Appendix A Standard Atmosphere, Appendix D Airfoil Data 855 SI Units 836 T, QQA Index 884 Appendix B Standard Atmosphere, English Engineering Units 846 Appendix C Symbols and Conversion Factors 854