Fundamentals of Compressible Fluid Mechanics

Transcription

1 Fundamentals of Compressible Fluid Mechanics Genick Bar Meir, Ph th Ave S. E. Minneapolis, MN Copyright 006, 005, and 004 by Genick Bar-Meir See the file copying.fdl or copyright.tex for copying conditions. Version ( aka j May 1, 007)

2 We are like dwarfs sitting on the shoulders of giants from The Metalogicon by John in 1159

3 CONTENTS GNU Free ocumentation License xvii 1. APPLICABILITY AN EFINITIONS xviii. VERBATIM COPYING xix 3. COPYING IN QUANTITY xix 4. MOIFICATIONS xx 5. COMBINING OCUMENTS xxii 6. COLLECTIONS OF OCUMENTS xxii 7. AGGREGATION WITH INEPENENT WORKS xxiii 8. TRANSLATION xxiii 9. TERMINATION xxiii 10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE xxiii AENUM: How to use this License for your documents xxiv Potto Project License xxv How to contribute to this book xxvii Credits xxvii John Martones xxvii Grigory Toker xxviii Ralph Menikoff xxviii Your name here xxviii Typo corrections and other minor contributions xxviii Version Sep. 15, xxxv Version xxxv Version xxxvi Version xxxvi Version xli Version xlii Speed of Sound xlvi iii

4 iv CONTENTS Stagnation effects xlvi Nozzle xlvi Normal Shock xlvi Isothermal Flow xlvi Fanno Flow xlvii Rayleigh Flow xlvii Evacuation and filling semi rigid Chambers xlvii Evacuating and filling chambers under external forces xlvii Oblique Shock xlvii Prandtl Meyer xlvii Transient problem xlvii 1 Introduction What is Compressible Flow? Why Compressible Flow is Important? Historical Background Early evelopments The shock wave puzzle Choking Flow External flow Filling and Evacuating Gaseous Chambers Biographies of Major Figures Fundamentals of Basic Fluid Mechanics 5.1 Introduction Fluid Properties Control Volume Reynold s Transport Theorem Speed of Sound Motivation Introduction Speed of sound in ideal and perfect gases Speed of Sound in Real Gas Speed of Sound in Almost Incompressible Liquid Speed of Sound in Solids Sound Speed in Two Phase Medium Isentropic Flow Stagnation State for Ideal Gas Model General Relationship Relationships for Small Mach Number Isentropic Converging-iverging Flow in Cross Section The Properties in the Adiabatic Nozzle Isentropic Flow Examples

5 CONTENTS v 4..3 Mass Flow Rate (Number) Isentropic Tables Isentropic Isothermal Flow Nozzle General Relationship The Impulse Function Impulse in Isentropic Adiabatic Nozzle The Impulse Function in Isothermal Nozzle Isothermal Table The effects of Real Gases Normal Shock Solution of the Governing Equations Informal Model Formal Model Prandtl s Condition Operating Equations and Analysis The Limitations of the Shock Wave Small Perturbation Solution Shock Thickness The Moving Shocks Shock Result from a Sudden and Complete Stop Moving Shock into Stationary Medium (Suddenly Open Valve) Partially Open Valve Partially Closed Valve Worked out Examples for Shock ynamics Shock Tube Shock with Real Gases Shock in Wet Steam Normal Shock in ucts More Examples for Moving Shocks Tables of Normal Shocks, k = 1.4 Ideal Gas Normal Shock in Variable uct Areas Nozzle efficiency iffuser Efficiency Nozzle Flow With External Forces Isentropic Nozzle (Q = 0) Isothermal Nozzle (T = constant) Isothermal Flow The Control Volume Analysis/Governing equations imensionless Representation The Entrance Limitation of Supersonic Branch Comparison with Incompressible Flow

6 vi CONTENTS 8.5 Supersonic Branch Figures and Tables Isothermal Flow Examples Unchoked situation Fanno Flow Introduction Model Non dimensionalization of the equations The Mechanics and Why the Flow is Choked? The working equations Examples of Fanno Flow Supersonic Branch Maximum length for the supersonic flow Working Conditions Variations of The Tube Length ( 4fL ) Effects The Pressure Ratio, P P 1, effects Entrance Mach number, M 1, effects The Approximation of the Fanno flow by Isothermal Flow More Examples of Fanno Flow The Table for Fanno Flow RAYLEIGH FLOW Introduction Governing Equation Rayleigh Flow Tables Examples For Rayleigh Flow Evacuating and Filling a Semi Rigid Chambers Governing Equations and Assumptions General Model and Non-dimensioned Isentropic Process Isothermal Process in The Chamber A Note on the Entrance Mach number Rigid Tank with Nozzle Adiabatic Isentropic Nozzle Attached Isothermal Nozzle Attached Rapid evacuating of a rigid tank With Fanno Flow Filling Process The Isothermal Process Simple Semi Rigid Chamber The Simple General Case Advance Topics

7 CONTENTS vii 1 Evacuating/Filing Chambers under External Volume Control General Model Rapid Process Examples irect Connection Summary Topics in Unsteady one imensional gas dynamics 5 14 Oblique-Shock Preface to Oblique Shock Introduction Introduction to Oblique Shock Introduction to Prandtl Meyer Function Introduction to Zero Inclination Oblique Shock Solution of Mach Angle Upstream Mach Number, M 1, and eflection Angle, δ When No Oblique Shock Exist or When > Upstream Mach Number, M 1, and Shock Angle, θ Given Two Angles, δ and θ Flow in a Semi Shape Small δ Weak Oblique shock Close and Far Views of the Oblique Shock Maximum Value of Oblique shock etached shock Issues Related to the Maximum eflection Angle Oblique Shock Examples Application of Oblique Shock Optimization of Suction Section esign Summary Appendix: Oblique Shock Stability Analysis Prandtl-Meyer Function Introduction Geometrical Explanation Alternative Approach to Governing Equations Comparison And Limitations between the Two Approaches The Maximum Turning Angle The Working Equations for the Prandtl-Meyer Function d Alembert s Paradox Flat Body with an Angle of Attack Examples For Prandtl Meyer Function Combination of the Oblique Shock and Isentropic Expansion

8 viii CONTENTS 16 Topics in Steady state Two imensional flow 79 A Computer Program 81 A.1 About the Program A. Usage A.3 Program listings Index 85 Subjects index Authors index

9 LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 The shock as connection of Fanno and Rayleigh lines after Stodola, Steam and Gas Turbine The schematic of delavel s turbine after Stodola, Steam and Gas Turbine The measured pressure in a nozzle taken from Stodola 197 Steam and Gas Turbines Flow rate as a function of the back pressure taken from Stodola 197 Steam and Gas Turbines Portrait of Galileo Galilei Photo of Ernest Mach The photo of thebullet in a supersonic flow not taken in a wind tunnel Photo of Lord Rayleigh Portrait of Rankine The photo of Gino Fanno approximately in Photo of Prandtl The photo of Ernst Rudolf George Eckert with the author s family A very slow moving piston in a still gas Stationary sound wave and gas moves relative to the pulse The Compressibility Chart Flow of a compressible substance (gas) through a converging diverging nozzle Perfect gas flows through a tube The stagnation properties as a function of the Mach number, k = Control volume inside a converging-diverging nozzle ix

10 x LIST OF FIGURES 4.5 The relationship between the cross section and the Mach number on the subsonic branch Various ratios as a function of Mach number for isothermal Nozzle The comparison of nozzle flow Comparison of the pressure and temperature drop as a function of the normalized length (two scales) Schematic to explain the significances of the Impulse function Schematic of a flow of a compressible substance (gas) thorough a converging nozzle for example (4.7) A shock wave inside a tube, but it can also be viewed as a one dimensional shock wave The intersection of Fanno flow and Rayleigh flow produces two solutions for the shock wave The exit Mach number and the stagnation pressure ratio as a function of upstream Mach number The ratios of the static properties of the two sides of the shock Comparison between stationary shock and moving shock in ducts Comparison between a stationary shock and a moving shock in a stationary medium in ducts The moving shock Mach numbers as a result of a sudden and complete stop A shock moves into a still medium as a result of a sudden and complete opening of a valve The number of iterations to achieve convergence The maximum of downstream Mach number as a function of the specific heat, k A shock moves into a moving medium as a result of a sudden and complete open valve The results of the partial opening of the valve A shock as a result of a sudden and partially a valve closing or a narrowing the passage to the flow Schematic of a piston pushing air in a tube Figure for Example (5.8) The shock tube schematic with a pressure diagram Figure for Example (5.10) The results for Example (5.10) The flow in the nozzle with different back pressures A nozzle with normal shock escription to clarify the definition of diffuser efficiency Schematic of a supersonic tunnel in a continuous region (and also for example (6.3) Control volume for isothermal flow

11 LIST OF FIGURES xi 8. escription of the pressure, temperature relationships as a function of the Mach number for isothermal flow The Mach number at the entrance to a tube under isothermal flow model as a function 4fL Control volume of the gas flow in a constant cross section Various parameters in Fanno flow as a function of Mach number Schematic of Example (9.1) The schematic of Example (9.) The maximum length as a function of specific heat, k The effects of increase of 4fL on the Fanno line The development properties in of converging nozzle The Mach numbers at entrance and exit of tube and mass flow rate for Fanno Flow as a function of the 4fL M 1 as a function M for various 4fL M 1 as a function M for different 4fL for supersonic entrance velocity The pressure distribution as a function of 4fL 4fL for a short The pressure distribution as a function of 4fL 4fL for a long The effects of pressure variations on Mach number profile as a function of 4fL 4fL when the total resistance = 0.3 for Fanno Flow Fanno Flow Mach number as a function of 4fL 4fL when the total = Schematic of a long tube in supersonic branch The extra tube length as a function of the shock location, 4fL supersonic branch The maximum entrance Mach number, M 1 to the tube as a function of 4fL supersonic branch The entrance Mach number as a function of dimensionless resistance and comparison with Isothermal Flow The control volume of Rayleigh Flow The Temperature Entropy iagram For Rayleigh Line The basic functions of Rayleigh Flow (k=1.4) The two different classifications of models that explain the filling or evacuating of a single chamber A schematic of two possible connections of the tube to a single chamber A schematic of the control volumes used in this model The pressure assumptions in the chamber and tube entrance The reduced time as a function of the modified reduced pressure The reduced time as a function of the modified reduced pressure The control volume of the Cylinder

12 xii LIST OF FIGURES 1. The pressure ratio as a function of the dimensionless time for chokeless condition The pressure ratio as a function of the dimensionless time for choked condition The pressure ratio as a function of the dimensionless time A view of a straight normal shock as a limited case for oblique shock The regions where oblique shock or Prandtl Meyer function exist. Notice that both have a maximum point and a no solution zone, which is around zero. However, Prandtl-Meyer function approaches closer to a zero deflection angle A typical oblique shock schematic Flow around spherically blunted 30 cone-cylinder with Mach number.0. It can be noticed that the normal shock, the strong shock, and the weak shock coexist The view of a large inclination angle from different points in the fluid field The various coefficients of three different Mach numbers to demonstrate that is zero The Mach waves that are supposed to be generated at zero inclination The calculation of (possible error), shock angle, and exit Mach number for M 1 = The possible range of solutions for different parameters for given upstream Mach numbers Schematic of finite wedge with zero angle of attack A local and a far view of the oblique shock The schematic for a round tip bullet in a supersonic flow The schematic for a symmetrical suction section with Mach reflection The detached shock in a complicated configuration sometimes referred to as Mach reflection Oblique shock occurs around a cone. This photo is courtesy of r. Grigory Toker, a Research Professor at Cuernavaco University of Mexico. According to his measurement, the cone half angle is 15 and the Mach number is Maximum values of the properties in an oblique shock Two variations of inlet suction for supersonic flow Schematic for Example (14.4) Schematic for Example (14.5) Schematic of two angles turn with two weak shocks Typical examples of unstable and stable situations The schematic of stability analysis for oblique shock The definition of the angle for the Prandtl Meyer function The angles of the Mach line triangle The schematic of the turning flow

13 LIST OF FIGURES xiii 15.4 The schematic of the coordinate based on the mathematical description Expansion of Prandtl-Meyer function when it exceeds the maximum angle A simplified diamond shape to illustrate the supersonic d Alembert s Paradox The angle as a function of the Mach number The definition of the angle for the Prandtl Meyer function The schematic of Example The schematic for the reversed question of example (15.) A.1 Schematic diagram that explains the structure of the program.... 8

14 xiv LIST OF FIGURES

15 LIST OF TABLES 3.1 Water speed of sound from different sources Liquids speed of sound, after Aldred, John, Manual of Sound Recording, London: Fountain Press, Solids speed of sound, after Aldred, John, Manual of Sound Recording, London:Fountain Press, Fliegner s number and other paramters as function of Mach number Fliegner s number and other paramters as function of Mach number (continue) Fliegner s number and other paramters as function of Mach number (continue) Isentropic Table k = Isentropic Table k=1.4 (continue) Isothermal Table Isothermal Table (continue) The shock wave table for k = The shock wave table for k = 1.4 (continue) The shock wave table for k = 1.4 (continue) Table for a Reflective Shock from a suddenly closed end (k=1.4) Table for Reflective Shock from suddenly closed valve (end) (k=1.4)(continue) Table for shock propagating from suddenly opened valve (k=1.4) Table for shock propagating from suddenly opened valve (k=1.4) Table for shock propagating from a suddenly opened valve (k=1.3) Table for shock propagating from a suddenly opened valve (k=1.3) Table for shock propagating from a suddenly opened valve (k=1.3) 11 xv

16 xvi LIST OF TABLES 8.1 The Isothermal Flow basic parameters The flow parameters for unchoked flow Fanno Flow Standard basic Table Fanno Flow Standard basic Table (continue) Rayleigh Flow k= Rayleigh Flow k=1.4 (continue) Rayleigh Flow k=1.4 (continue) Table of maximum values of the oblique Shock k= Maximum values of oblique shock (continue) k=

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26 xxvi LIST OF TABLES 6. Applicability of this license You are not required to accept this License, since you have not signed it. However, nothing else grants you permission to copy, distribute or modify these materials. These actions are prohibited by law if you do not accept this License. Therefore, by distributing or translating these materials, or by deriving works here from, you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or translating these materials. 7. No Warranty Because these materials are licensed free of charge, there is no warranty for the manuscript, to the extent permitted by applicable law. Except when otherwise stated in writing the copyright holders and/or other parties provide these manuscripts AS IS without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. The entire risk of use of this manuscript is with you. Should this manuscript prove faulty, inaccurate, or otherwise unacceptable you assume the cost of all necessary repair or correction. 8. No Liability In no event unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing will any copyright holder, or any other party who may mirror and/or redistribute these materials as permitted above, be liable to you for damages, including any general, special, incidental or consequential damages arising out of the use or inability to use this manuscript, even if such holder or other party has been advised of the possibility of such damages. 9. Jurisdiction These terms and conditions are governed by and will be interpreted in accordance with the state of POTTO Project residence law and any disputes relating to these terms and conditions will be exclusively subject to the jurisdiction of the courts of POTTO Project residence. Currently, the POTTO Project residence is the state of Minnesota. The various provisions of these terms and conditions are severable and if any provision is held to be invalid or unenforceable by any court of competent jurisdiction then such invalidity or unenforceability shall not affect the remaining provisions. If these terms and conditions are not accepted in full, you use the book and or the software must be terminated immediately.

27 CONTRIBUTOR LIST How to contribute to this book As a copylefted work, this book is open to revision and expansion by any interested parties. The only catch is that credit must be given where credit is due. This is a copyrighted work: it is not in the public domain! If you wish to cite portions of this book in a work of your own, you must follow the same guidelines as for any other GL copyrighted work. Credits All entries arranged in alphabetical order of surname. Major contributions are listed by individual name with some detail on the nature of the contribution(s), date, contact info, etc. Minor contributions (typo corrections, etc.) are listed by name only for reasons of brevity. Please understand that when I classify a contribution as minor, it is in no way inferior to the effort or value of a major contribution, just smaller in the sense of less text changed. Any and all contributions are gratefully accepted. I am indebted to all those who have given freely of their own knowledge, time, and resources to make this a better book! ate(s) of contribution(s): 004 to present Nature of contribution: Original author. Contact at: barmeir@gmail.com John Martones ate(s) of contribution(s): June 005 xxvii

28 xxviii LIST OF TABLES Nature of contribution: HTML formatting, some error corrections. Grigory Toker ate(s) of contribution(s): August 005 Nature of contribution: Provided pictures of the oblique shock for oblique shcok chapter. Ralph Menikoff ate(s) of contribution(s): July 005 Nature of contribution: Some discussion about the solution to oblique shock and about the Maximum eflection of the oblique shock. Your name here ate(s) of contribution(s): Month and year of contribution Nature of contribution: Insert text here, describing how you contributed to the book. Contact at: my Typo corrections and other minor contributions H. Gohrah, Ph.., September 005, some LaTeX issues. Roy Tate November 006, Suggestions on improving english and gramer.