Ethical Decision Making

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1 Everyone will face ethical dilemmas in their personal and professional lives. As PAOs, the impact of ethics is often magnified because so much of what we do is subject to public scrutiny. By thinking about your ethical code and values, and using a proven model, you will be in a stronger position to make ethical decisions that support your organization's ethical standards. The practice of public affairs is centered on three fundamental tenants: truth, trust and credibility. In a profession that relies so heavily on institutional and individual credibility, communication professionals must have a solid ethical foundation in order to be effective. Lapses of ethical judgment often become hot media topics for any organization, garnering negative publicity and significantly damaging organizational reputations. This is even more profound for the U.S. armed forces, an organization with a historically stellar professional reputation among the American public for doing the right thing. The law dictates what not to do regarding communication. However, the question that public affairs practitioners often contemplate is, what governs what we should do? This is the world of ethics the discipline of deciphering right from wrong rather than legal from illegal. The challenge is that ethics are seldom black and white. Public affairs leaders often operate in a gray area between true and false, accurate and technically accurate, and tactical and strategic perspectives. To be of value to your commander and your unit, you must have an understanding of ethical standards and their application in the fields of public affairs and journalism. In this class, you will explore the ethical principles that guide public affairs leaders through effectively solving communication problems. The Defense Information School, Fort George G. Meade, Maryland 1

2 Definition Within the Department of Defense, our ethical values are spelled out in the Joint Ethics Regulation DoD R. Ethics are standards by which one should act based on values. They are the rules or standards governing the conduct of a person, organization or the members of a profession (SECNAVINST C, p. 1-2). They are values in action. Ethical values relate to what is right and wrong and thus take precedence over non-ethical values when making ethical decisions. Values are core beliefs such as duty, honor and integrity, which motivate attitudes and actions. Not all values are ethical values. Integrity is an ethical value. Happiness is not. Department of Defense employees should carefully consider ethical values when making decisions as part of official duties. Any discussion of the professional status of public affairs professionals must begin with ethics. In fact, adherence to a code of professional ethics is one of the distinguishing characteristics of a profession regardless of the occupational field. Ethical issues take on added importance because public affairs professionals have unprecedented power in decisions that affect every aspect of our society. In today s high tech, global world, information and influence reach most parts of the world with amazing speed and ease. The impact of public affairs activities does not stop at national or cultural boundaries. So, you must consider what ethical values you bring to PA based on your experience and education. Yours might be among those on a list from the Joint Ethics Regulation that include honesty, integrity, loyalty, accountability, fairness, caring, respect, promise keeping, responsible citizenship, or pursuit of excellence. Ultimately, ethics is the study of right versus wrong. Ethics reflects a society s notions about the rightness or wrongness of an act. To accuse someone of laziness or incompetence is not to accuse that person of ethical lapses. However, an accusation of stealing, lying and cheating does imply a violation of ethical norms. But, do these types of distinctions and considerations apply to public affairs? Some would argue that public affairs, along with civilian public relations, have a negative connotation as an unethical occupation. Critics have gone so far as to argue that public affairs practitioners are inherently in the business of spin, propaganda and manipulation. The profession of public affairs must be intrinsically good in order to effectively accomplish its core mission: facilitate dialogue with the public, promote understanding of our organizations and build mutually beneficial relationships with constituencies. Some would argue that these are not merely ethical - but noble - pursuits. However, to qualify as such, public affairs must be practiced with a commitment to social responsibility and ethics. Public affairs personnel serve the organization best when they act as the ethical conscience of the organization viewing issues from a moral perspective and not simply from a legal perspective. 2 The Center of Excellence for Visual Information and Public Affairs

3 Approaches To apply ethics to any situation, one must investigate moral questions by looking for underlying ethical principles and justification for why they are virtuous in nature. These moral principles are the maxims that guide our behavior as professionals. Some of these maxims are the products of philosophical reasoning or the world s religions. They have stood the test of time. Others are more recent attempts to reflect the rapidly changing situational nature of 21st-century society. All of them represent an effort to identify universal standards by which activities can be evaluated with common grounding. two approaches in moral philosophy that are commonly used in ethical decision making deontology and utilitarianism. 1. Deontological philosophy Deontology is derived from the Greek word deon (in English, duty ). Deontological ethics focuses on the moral principle involved, rather than basing the morality of the decision on its projected outcome. It is also known as nonconsequentialist because is inherently NOT concerned with consequences and maintains that ethics should be guided by duty rather than consequences. Many philosophers and professionals have stated that the deontological approach is arguably the most exhaustive approach in ethics. This is primarily due to the underlying deontological belief that the ethical nature of an action does not depend on its outcome because predicting the exact outcome is beyond human capability or control. How does this underlying principle apply to public affairs? As a PAO, can you accurately predict the outcome of communication? Deontological ethics is epitomized by the statement Do the right thing as a matter of moral duty. But how do we determine what the right thing IS? For deontology, that test is philosopher Immanuel Kant s categorical imperative. For a decision to be ethical, it must be universally ethical. What is right for one, must be right for all. Thus, the concept of universal duty represents what all rational people would agree is ethical from any perspective on the issue. The two primary considerations of the categorical imperative are the person s intention and their aptness to maintain dignity and respect of others. public relations as it is most concerned with what is right or wrong as opposed to who benefits the most in a situation. The inherent fairness of this model allows communication professionals to consider the perspectives of multiple stakeholders, develop an understanding of their values and principles, and remove organizational bias from the equation. It allows public affairs professionals to advise leadership on the right course of action based on moral principle, rather than self-interest. Ultimately, the public affairs professional evaluates the ethics of options INDEPENDENT of what the organization desires, so that his her role as the ethical conscience of an organization is valued as distinct, expert input for decision making. Philosopher Immanuel Kant Many argue that the deontological model is the most effective application to public affairs and The Defense Information School, Fort George G. Meade, Maryland 3

4 Approaches (continued) 2. Utilitarian philosophy Utilitarianism is based on the concept of utility or the expected outcome of a decision. The consequences of a decision are the basis for measuring the moral worth of an action or activity. Utilitarianism holds the belief that ethical action should create the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people. Attributed to its best-known proponent John Stuart Mill, the philosophy states that decisions and activities should maximize the benefits for the largest number of people while minimizing any negative consequences for all others. It advocates a responsibility to society for the organization, as it views the organization as a part of society. Philosopher John Stuart Mill Within the public affairs profession, one would consider all available decision alternatives and select the one that produces a positive outcome for the majority. In instances when an organization acts contrary to the public s welfare, then the organization is obligated to reconcile by righting the wrong caused by the organizational behavior and coming clean on the issue. PAOs might put this into practice by releasing information that maximizes benefits for the greatest number of people (EPR, p. 120). Utilitarianism is considered the most common approach to ethical decision making in business. Yet, the philosophy does present some limits to its usefulness. Its focus on the majority tends to neglect the impact on the minority. This often leads to maintaining status quo and resistance to change. The philosophy also requires public affairs professionals to accurately predict outcomes in order to gauge future consequences of their decisions which, as we ve discussed is a difficult venture. The deontological and utilitarian models present the most effective means of assessing ethical considerations for public affairs professionals. There are a host of other religious and philosophical ethical frameworks that are commonly accepted among academics and professionals. Yet within the scope of this lesson, we will not explore them in any depth. The models that we ve discussed present a framework for thinking about ethics and assessing if actions are consistent with moral norms in a society. However, in professions such as public affairs, we re more concerned with the application of moral norms in practice this is applied ethics. Look at a DOD ethical decision-making plan from DOD R, pp Virtually everyone in federal government service makes job-related decisions. Some of these decisions may seem more important than others, but all should be preceded by a consideration of ethical ramifications. In some cases, the ethical element of decision-making will go no further than to consciously acknowledge that there are no significant ethical ramifications to consider. In other cases, in-depth ethical analysis is called for in addition to application of ethics rules. Decisions made by everyone in government service should begin by considering ethical ramifications (DOD R, p. 118). In some cases the ethical element of decision-making will go no further than to consciously acknowledge that there are no significant ethical ramifications to consider. In other cases in-depth ethical analysis is necessary while applying ethics rules. When a decision necessitates an in-depth ethical analysis, follow the DOD's ethical decision-making plan. The following plan for decision-making ensures careful review of ethical consequences when there are alternative solutions that seem proper under existing laws and regulations. DOD employees should consider incorporating the following plan in official decisionmaking: (DOD R, p. 118) 1. Define the Problem. Proceed from a general statement of the problem to specific statements of the 4 The Center of Excellence for Visual Information and Public Affairs

5 Approaches (continued) decisions to be made. As you take the following steps, such as identifying goals and naming stakeholders, new problems or needed decisions may become apparent. Be willing to add these to your problem list as you go. 2. Identify the Goal(s). Proceed from a general statement of an end result both long term and short term. Be prepared to add to this list as you take the following steps. Goals are something to strive toward. They are statements of the best possible results. The very best is not always achieved for everyone. Many problems do not allow for win/win outcomes. Be prepared to fall somewhat short of some goals for the sake of ethics and other considerations. 3. List Applicable Laws or Regulations. Laws and regulations are basic constraints within which official decisions are made. Until all relevant laws and regulations are considered, ethical decisionmaking is impossible. It is conceivable that an ethical decision could violate a law or regulation. 4. List the Ethical Values at Stake. Listing the ethical values at stake can awaken you to problems and goals that you may not have otherwise considered. It may alert you to stakeholders you may not have recognized. Listing the values reminds you of your commitment to them at a time when the stress of the problem may cause you to forget. 5. Name All the Stakeholders. A stakeholder is anyone who is likely to be affected by a decision. Many stakeholders will be apparent because of the previous steps you already followed. More will occur to you as you give the matter a few minutes of thought. Do not forget to include yourself and the people who may depend on you for support, both at work and at home. As you list the stakeholders, try to note the way your decision could affect them. In other words, name what is at stake for the stakeholder. questions, demand proof when appropriate, check your assumptions. 7. State All Feasible Solutions. By this time, some feasible solutions will have presented themselves. Others may be found by sharing the lists and information you have pulled together and "brain storming." As you state the feasible solutions, note which stakeholders could be affected and what might be gained or lost. 8. Eliminate Unethical Options. There may be solutions that seem to resolve the problem and reach the goal but which are clearly unethical. Remember that short-term solutions are not worth sacrificing our commitment to ethics. The long-term problems of unethical solutions will not be worth the short-term advantages. Eliminate the unethical solutions. 9. Rank Remaining Solutions. Other solutions may not be clearly unethical but may be questionable. You may have to rely on intuition or "gut feelings" to weed out these solutions. Put these possible solutions at the bottom of your list. Rank the remaining solutions, which are all ethical ones, in order of how close they bring you to your goal and solve the problem. 10. Commit To and Implement the Best Ethical Solution. Commitment and implementation are vital to the ethical decision-making process. Determining which solution is the best ethical one is a meaningless exercise unless implementation of the ethical solution follows. If the right decision is not implemented, the door is left wide open for others to implement unethical solutions. 6. Gather Additional Information. This step is frequently overlooked. The stress from the problem urges speedy solutions. However, hasty decisions usually create problems of their own. Take the time to gather all necessary information. Ask The Defense Information School, Fort George G. Meade, Maryland 5

6 Professional Codes With an overall sense for DOD's focus on ethics and its ethical decision-making plan, let's examine other organizations' codes to see if they align with our ideas. Ethical conduct suggests actions are consistent with moral norms in a society. In professions, the application of moral values in practice is referred to as applied ethics. Ethics codes identify core values. Several professional organizations PAs will likely work with have their own codes of ethics, with much in common with DOD ethics. Public Relations Society of America With more than 21,000 members, the Public Relations Society of America is the largest professional organization of organizational communication professionals. The PRSA code of ethics is founded on the following core values (PRSA): - Advocacy - Honesty - Expertise - Independence - Loyalty - Fairness The code demands members adhere to the following guidelines: - Free flow of information be honest and accurate in communication. - Competition protect intellectual property rights. - Disclosure of information avoid deceptive practices. - Safeguard confidence protect confidential information. - Conflicts of interest act in the best interest of the client. - Enhance the profession advocate professional development. The International Association of Business Communicators The International Association of Business Communicators Code of Ethics is based on three different yet interrelated principles of professional communication, that apply throughout the world: professional communication is legal; professional communication is ethical; professional communication is in good taste. The Society of Professional Journalists The Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics requires members to seek the truth and report it, minimize harm, act independently and be accountable. The SPJ code of ethics identifies the duty of the journalist as furthering public enlightenment by seeking truth and providing a fair and comprehensive account of events and issues. The code requires members to adhere to the following guidelines of ethical behavior: - Seek the truth and report it - Journalists should be honest, fair and courageous in gathering, reporting and interpreting information. - Minimize harm - Ethical journalists treat sources, subjects and colleagues as human beings deserving of respect. - Act independently - Journalists should be free of obligation to any interest other than the public s right to know. - Be accountable - Journalists are accountable to their readers, listeners, viewers and each other. Visual information ethics considerations Public affairs has strict guidelines that cover ethical considerations of photo enhancement spelled out in DODI pp 1-3. Illustration enhancement and manipulation rules and regulations are tied in with mission success and the protection of lives and property. This depends on official DOD imagery being complete, timely, and above all, highly accurate. Ethics in the context of visual information align with other applications of ethical standards. Specific considerations unique to visual information apply to alteration, enhancements, digital compression, masking, and other techniques. The primary consideration is to make sure any enhancement does not misrepresent the subject of the original image (DODI , p. 32). Enhanced images are permitted when it is clearly and readily apparent from the context or from the content of the image or accompanying text that the enhanced image is not intended to be an accurate representation of an actual event. 6 The Center of Excellence for Visual Information and Public Affairs

7 Factors We ve briefly looked at ethical considerations in imagery, and the ethical codes of other organizations. Now, re-examine the ethical decision-making plan and identify internal and external factors affecting decisions. Which elements of the plan do you see as being internal factors and which do you believe are external? Can any of the steps overlap internal and external? Internal factors affecting decisions might include: definition of the problem, identification of the goal, and available information. External factors affecting decisions could include: applicable laws and regulations, ethical values at stake, and available information. Photo courtesy of The Defense Information School, Fort George G. Meade, Maryland 7

8 Values and Parties Primary ethical values specified in the Joint Ethics Regulation include: honesty, integrity, loyalty, accountability, fairness, caring, respect, promise keeping, responsible citizenship, pursuit of excellence. Parties affected by decisions are known as stakeholders. Photo courtesy of 8 The Center of Excellence for Visual Information and Public Affairs

9 Conclusion As a public affairs officer, your value to your commander and the organization you represent is directly tied to your credibility as a professional communicator. Our profession is founded in truth and trust. In order to be an effective PAO, you must have a solid foundation of ethical considerations and, more importantly, the application of those ethical guidelines in their communication. Rarely are those issues black and white. However, with a developed understanding of the ethical frameworks and guidelines learned today, you will be well equipped to act as the ethical conscience of your command. Now that you have completed this lesson you should be prepared to describe the various ethical standards in journalism and apply ethics in public affairs. It is likely you will encounter ethical dilemmas daily as a working professional. As PAOs, your behavior and actions especially what you do on behalf of your organization are often subject to intense public scrutiny. Equipped with a strong sense of ethics and values, and a proven ethical decision-making plan you will be in a better position to support your organization with public communication. The Defense Information School, Fort George G. Meade, Maryland 9

10 References and Additional Resources Joint Ethics Regulation, DOD R, Section thru SECNAVINST C (2012). Department of the Navy Public Affairs Policy and Regulations Ethical Guidance for Public Relations Practitioners (PRSA). Retrieved from IABC Code of Ethics for Professional Communicators. Retrieved from SPJ Code of Ethics. Retrieved from DODI (2011). Visual Information Broom, G.M. (2009). Cutlip & Center's Effective Public Relations (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Guth, D. & Marsh, C. (2012). Public Relations: A Values-Driven Approach (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon Public Relations Society of America. (2008). PRSA Code of Ethics. Retrieved December 10, 2008, from 10 The Center of Excellence for Visual Information and Public Affairs

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