URBAN AGRICULTURE, ATLANTA, & THE REGULATORY CONTEXT JENNA E LEE MASTERS OF CITY & REGIONAL PLANNING SPRING 2011
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1 URBANAGRICULTURE,ATLANTA,&THEREGULATORYCONTEXT JENNAELEEMASTERSOFCITY®IONALPLANNINGSPRING2011
2 TABLEOFCONTENTS COVERPAGE..1 TABLEOFCONTENTS...2 SUMMARY 3 INDEXOFTABLES... 4 INTRODUCTION...5 BACKGROUND..6 URBANAGRICULTUREHISTORY®ULATORYCONTEXT. 8 URBANAGRICULTUREPRODUCTION. 11 POTENTIALBENEFITSOFURBANAGRICULTURE...16 OBSTACLESTOURBANAGRICULTURE..19 AGRICULTUREASURBANINFILL:CASESTUDIES/OTHERCITIES.. 23 ANIMALS ATLANTA:OVERVIEW&HISTORY ZONINGFORPRODUCTIONINATLANTAANDFULTONCOUNTY BACKYARD,COMMUNITYGARDENS,&COMMERCIALSALES CONCLUSION/OPPORTUNITIES BIBLIOGRAPHY
3 SUMMARY PROBLEM:Agrowingbodyofresearchinvestigatestherelationshipbetweenthebuilt environmentandhealth,specificallythehealthconsequencesforthosewithinadequateaccess toaffordableandhealthyfood becausetherearenonearbymarketsorbecauseavailablefood isnotaffordable.sustainableurbanagricultureoffersopportunitiesatmanyscalestobring healthyfoodbackintothecityandclosertothoseseekingit;however,today sregulatory systemdoesnotofferclearlegalavenuesforthoseseekingtoinitiateurbanagriculture programsandoperations. PURPOSE:Thepurposeofthisinvestigationistobetterunderstandthepotentialforfood productioninurbanenvironmentsandwayscitiescanreviseregulatoryframeworkstofacilitate andencouragesustainablefoodproduction. METHOD:Ifirstresearchedthecurrentstateoffoodsystemsinurbanenvironmentsand identifiedthepossibilitiesandlimitationsofcommercialurbanagricultureoperations, communitygardens,andhouseholdagriculture.itheninvestigatedtheagricultureinitiativesof othercities.andfinally,iresearchedatlanta scurrenturbanagricultureprojects,conducteda closereadofatlanta srelevantregulatoryframework,andmaderecommendationsto encouragesustainablefoodsystemsinatlanta. CONCLUSION:Cities,counties,localgovernments,communities,andindividualhouseholdsall influencelocalfoodproductionpotentialandeachplayaroleincreatinglong termsustainable foodsystemplans.atthecitylevel,zoningandpolicyupdatesthatallowandencourageurban agriculture,landinventoriesandassessments,andcity sponsoredprogramstoencourage communitygardensandfarmersmarketsarevaluabletoolsfordevelopingasustainablefood system.citiesandcommunitiesareutilizingvacantparcels,publicrightsofway,un usedgreen spaces,andunder usedparkinglotsforbothtemporaryandpermanenturbanagriculture projects.whetherit sanimalhusbandry,raised bedgardening,orsimplyplantingsomeedible greensorfruit bearingtrees,gardenersandpolicymakersarecreatinginnovativewaystomake urbanvacantspaceproductive.citiesthroughoutthecountryareinitiatingurbangardening programsasinterimusesforvacantproperties andothersarecreatingregulatoryframeworks thatestablishpermanentagricultureuses.urbanfarms,communitygardens,andlocalmarkets havebecomeubiquitousinsustainableurbandevelopmentdiscourse andregardlessofthe approach,urbanagricultureisgainingrecognitionasbeingvitaltoeconomic,social,cultural, andenvironmentalsecurity. 3
4 INDEXOFTABLES Photo1.WarGardenattheSheridanSchoolduringWorldWarI.12 Photo2.1941ComicBookCoverPromotingVictoryGardens Photo3.1942TomatoContainerGarden,London 14 Map1.VacantorUnderutilizedParcelsinFultonCounty 20 Table1.TableofTotalFarmAcresandHarvestedCroplandbyMetro AtlantaCounties..30 Map2.MapofPublixandKrogerShoppingCentersinMetro Atlanta..31 Map3.MapofRegionsZonedasAgriculturalDistrictsinFultonCounty...34 Diagram1.DiagramofAverageIntownAtlantaResidentialLotandRabbitEnclosure..37 4
5 INTRODUCTION Inrecentyears,accesstofoodinthecity,particularlyaccesstohealthyfood,hasgarneredmuch attentionfromresearchers,policy makers,andlocalactivists.whereindividualsobtaintheir foodandwhattheyactuallyconsumenotonlyhassocio economicandenvironmental implications butitisalsocriticaltopublichealth.studiesaboundlinkingpovertyand obesity andironically,somethemostimpoverishedneighborhoodsintheunitedstatesare alsosaddledwithsomeofthehighestobesityrates. 1 Todayanestimated80%oftheUnitedStatespopulationresidesincitiesormetroareas and thesenumbersaregrowing. 2 Andaspopulationsgrow,sodoesthedemandforfood andas citiesgrow,sodoesthedistancebetweenfoodproductionandfoodconsumption.theaverage Americanmealtravelsbetween1,500and2,500milesfromitssourcetothetable,whichisan estimated25percentincreaseoverthedistancetraveledin Andanestimated50%of foodproductstransportedislosttospoilage. 4 Thisdramaticchangeislargelyduetothe transformationofagriculturalproductionoverthepastfewdecadesfromsmaller scalefarmsto largeindustrialagri businesses.thischangeinthescaleandgeographyoffoodproductionhas haddetrimentaleffectsonpublichealth,localeconomies,andtheenvironment andsome researchersarguetheseconsequencesamounttoafood securitycrisis. 5 1 Dolnick,S.(2010,March12).TheObesity HungerParadox.TheNewYorkTimes.RetrievedOctober20, 2010,fromhttp:// 2 FoodSecurityCoalition.(2003).UrbanAgricultureandCommunityFoodSecurityintheUnitedStates: FarmingfromtheCityCentertotheUrbanFringe.NorthAmericanUrbanAgricultureCommittee,October 2003, FoodSecurityCoalition.(2003).UrbanAgricultureandCommunityFoodSecurityintheUnitedStates: FarmingfromtheCityCentertotheUrbanFringe.NorthAmericanUrbanAgricultureCommittee,October 2003, FoodSecurityCoalition.(2003).UrbanAgricultureandCommunityFoodSecurityintheUnitedStates: FarmingfromtheCityCentertotheUrbanFringe.NorthAmericanUrbanAgricultureCommittee,October 2003, FoodSecurityCoalition.(2003).UrbanAgricultureandCommunityFoodSecurityintheUnitedStates: FarmingfromtheCityCentertotheUrbanFringe.NorthAmericanUrbanAgricultureCommittee,October 2003,
6 BACKGROUND Manyresearchersandactivistsarguethatthecurrentfoodproductionsystem,whichis centereduponmonoculturecropsandintensiveanimalfeedlots,isinefficient,wasteful,and environmentallydamaging.assailantsofthecurrentindustrialagriculturepracticesare compilingagrowinglistofindustrialagriculture soffenses.forinstance,researchersare beginningtolinkindustrialagriculturetolossofbiodiversityamongplantsandanimals. Additionally,fertilizers,pesticides,andanimal antibioticsoftencompromisefoodsafetyand pollutetheenvironment.manylarge scalefarmsalsousewaterresourcesandnon renewable energyatunsustainablerates.andlastly,evidenceexistssuggestingthatthemonocrops producedbysuchoperationsyieldfoodsthatareoftennutritionallypoor. 6 Notincludingenergyrequiredforfoodtransport,theaveragefarmintheUnitedStatesrequires 3kcalofnon renewablefossilfuelenergytoproduce1kcaloffoodenergy andacattlefeedlot requires35kcaloffossilfuelsper1kcaloffoodenergy. 7 SuchinefficienciesoftheAmerican foodsupplysystemwillcontinuetoincreaseastheconsumptionoffactory farmedmeat increases.in2000,theaverageyearlymeatconsumptionpercapitaintheunitedstateswas 195pounds andthisnumberis57poundsgreaterthanthenationalaverageofthethe1950 s. 8 Cattlerequire7kgofgraintoproduce1kgofbeef,pigsrequire4kgper1kgofpork,and poultryrequire2kgper1kgofmeatproduced. 9 6 Horrigan,L.,Lawrence,R.S.,&Walker,P.(2002).HowSustainableAgricultureCanAddressthe EnvironmentalandHumanHealthHarmsofIndustrialAgriculture.EnvironmentalHealthPerspectives, 110(5), Horrigan,L.,Lawrence,R.S.,&Walker,P.(2002).HowSustainableAgricultureCanAddressthe EnvironmentalandHumanHealthHarmsofIndustrialAgriculture.EnvironmentalHealthPerspectives, 110(5), AgricultureFactbook (n.d.).Chapter2:ProfilingFoodConsumptioninAmerica.Retrieved October10,2010,fromwww.usda.gov/factbook/chapter2.htm 9 Horrigan,L.,Lawrence,R.S.,&Walker,P.(2002).HowSustainableAgricultureCanAddressthe EnvironmentalandHumanHealthHarmsofIndustrialAgriculture.EnvironmentalHealthPerspectives, 110(5),
7 Notonlycanthemodernfoodsystembeenvironmentallydamaging,butitcanalsohave extremeimplicationsforpublichealth,especiallyforminoritiesandlow incomeindividuals. 10 Thereisagrowingbodyofresearchinvestigatingtherelationshipbetweenthebuilt environmentandhealth,specificallythehealthconsequencesforthosewithinadequateaccess tohealthyfood whetheritbebecausetherearenomarketsorbecauseavailablefoodisnot affordable.accordingtoresearchers,oneintenfamiliesintheunitedstatesis foodinsecure, meaningtheyexperienceperiodsoftimeinwhichtheyareuncertainofhavingenoughfoodfor allmembersofthehousehold eitherbecauseofinsufficientmoneyorbecauseofinadequate accesstofood. 11 Minorities,low incomeindividuals,andthosewholiveinruralareashavethehighestrateof diseasesstemmingfromadietlackinginnutrient richfood.thebuiltenvironmentisoneofthe greatestcontributorstothehealthdisparitiesthatexistbetweendifferentsocioeconomic classes: low incomeareashavefewersupermarketsandgroceriesthatcarryhealthyfoods thandopredominantlywhite,middle andhigh incomeneighborhoods;storesinlow income neighborhoodsstockfewerhealthyitemsandhavesignificantlylower qualityfreshproduce; whenavailable,thecostoffreshfoodsinlow incomeareasisoftenprohibitive;andpublic transportationtosupermarketsisoftenlacking. 12 Researchersemphasizethedistinctionbetweenaccesstofoodandaccesstohealthy,nutrientrichfood;however,whileanawarenessofhealthycalorieavailabilityisastartingpoint,an assessmentoftheadequacyofaneighborhood sfoodaccessmustconsiderabroaderdefinition ofthe quality offood researchersandpolicymakersshouldalsoconsiderwhetherthe environmentprovidesfoodthatisnutritionallysound,affordable,andculturallyappropriate Friedman,R.R.(2008).Accesstohealthyfoodsinlow incomeneighborhoods:opportunitiesforpublic policy.newhaven,ct.:yaleuniversityruddcenterforfoodpolicy&obesity. 11 Freedman,D.A.,&Bell,B.A.(2009).AccesstoHealthfulFoodsAmonganUrbanFoodInsecure Population:PerceptionsVersusReality.JournalofUrbanHealth,86(6), Friedman,R.R.(2008).Accesstohealthyfoodsinlow incomeneighborhoods:opportunitiesforpublic policy.newhaven,ct.:yaleuniversityruddcenterforfoodpolicy&obesity. 13 Raja,S.,Ma,C.,&Yadav,P.(2008).BeyondFoodDesertsMeasuringandMappingRacialDisparitiesin NeighborhoodFoodEnvironments.JournalofPlanningEducationandResearch,27(4),469. 7
8 Communitygardens,urbanagricultureprograms,andfarmersmarketsseemespecially appropriateinaddressingthisneed.researchshowsthatindividualslivingclosetoa supermarketconsumeahealthierdiet likewise,thosewithaccesstoaffordablefruitsand vegetablestypicallyhavealowerbodymassindex 14 URBANAGRICULTUREHISTORY®ULATORYCONTEXT TheCityBeautifulmovementofthelate19 th Centuryandearly20 th Centuryemphasizedthe needtobringordertotheurbanframeworkandpurgethecityofanythingpotentially unhealthy,unattractive,orinefficient.thecitybeautifulidealsoughttopushindustryoutof citycenters,andwiththeindustrywentpublicmarketsandanylanduseassociatedwithfood productionorprocessing. 15 Andwhilethispurgingwasperhapsjustifiablegiventheurban contextofthetime,thesystemhasgrowntoascalethatsometimescontributestoun health andenvironmentaldeteriorationinsteadofimprovingthehealthofurbanenvironments. Althoughplannersoftheeradidconsidertheconsequencesofthegeographyoffood productionrelativetotheconsumer,agricultureintheunitedstateswastransformingfroma moreorlesslocalfarmsystemtoamonocropagri businesssystemoperatingonanation wide scale. 16 UndertheUnitedStatestraditionallandusepatternsandgiventhecurrentscaleofproduction, foodisgenerallyproducedoutsideofthecity.contemporaryzoningpracticesareoften targetedastheculpritforthecurrentstateofcities foodsystems;however,sincethecolonial era,separatedlandusepatternshavebeenprevalent wherein,nuisance producingoperations suchasslaughterhousesandtannerieswererelegatedtotheoutskirtsoftown. 17 Today,inthe averagecity sregulatoryframework,manycodesinteracttoregulatefoodproductionlocation, 14 Rundle,A.,Neckerman,K.,Freeman,L.,Lovasi,G.,Purciel,M.,Quinn,J.,etal.(2009).Neighborhood FoodEnvironmentandWalkabilityPredictObesityinNewYorkCity.EnvironmentalHealthPerspective, 117(Number3), Bonfiglio,O.(2009).DeliciousinDetroit.AmericanPlanningAssociation,August/September, Bonfiglio,O.(2009).DeliciousinDetroit.AmericanPlanningAssociation,August/September, Williams,N.(1956).TheEvolutionofZoning.TheAmericanJournalofEconomicsandSociology, 15(3),
9 methods,andaccess stateandfederalagricultureregulations,countyandcityhealthcodes,as wellaslocalzoningordinances. However,whilezoningcodesmaynotbesolelyresponsibleforthecurrentstateoftheaverage city sabilitytocontributetoitsfoodsystem,zoningdoesplayasignificantroleinregulatingthe potentialforfoodproductioninanurbanenvironment.in1926,thestandardstatezoning EnablingActwascreatedinanefforttopreservehealth.Morespecifically,policy makers createdtheact forthepurposeofpromotinghealth,safety,morals,orthegeneralwelfareof thecommunity. 18 TheActgavestatesandlocalgovernmentstheauthoritytoformally regulatelanduses.andtheseregulationsmosttypicallymanifestedintheformofeuclidean zoning,whereby incompatible usesareseparated. Andperhapscreatingexclusivedistrictsandseparatingdistrictsbyusewasalegitimate responsetothehyper industrializedurbanrealityattheturnofthe20 th Century;however, today szoningregulationsperpetuateexclusivezoningdistrictsandsometimesseparate incompatible usesinawaythatcanbecontrarytothepublic sbestinterest.whilethecodes oftenpreventundesirablescenarios,theysometimesalsoprohibitdesirableones,suchas communitygardensorfarmersmarketsinresidentialdistricts. Becauseallowingagricultureasalegallanduseisarguablythefirstcriticalstepinpromoting urbanagriculture,researchersandadvocatesoftenemphasizetheneedtoupdatezoningcodes. However,zoningcodesarenottheonlyrelevantregulations.Agricultureoperationsseekingto sellgoodsmustreceivecertificationfromthehome statedepartmentofagriculture;likewise, organicgrowersmustreceivefederalcertificationandmustalsofolloworganicgrowing guidelines.anyrestrictionssetforthbythesestateandfederalguidelinesactinadditionto localzoningcodes. Post growingactivitiesalsohavetheirownregulatoryframework.ingeorgia,packagedfood productsforsalearegovernedthestateagriculturedepartmentandtheu.s.departmentof 18 AStandardStateZoningEnablingAct,UnitedStatesDepartmentofCommerce(1926),SectionI 9
10 Agriculture.TheGeorgiaDepartmentofCommunityHealthregulatespreparedfoodproducts thatareservedfresh,andlocalcountyhealthdepartmentsadministertheseregulations. 19 Theoriginalwordsfromthepurposestatementofthezoningenablingstatute topromotethe health,safety,morals,orthegeneralwelfareofthecommunity canbere interpretedbya modernreaderasofferingtheperfectplatformforanargumentpromotingurbanagriculture, communitygardens,foodsystemsplanning,andrevisedgardeningregulations.giventherates offoodinsecurity,increasingobesityrates,andtherisingcostsassociatedwithourcurrentfood system,thezoningframeworkshouldbereconsideredandrevised.inmanycommunities,the currentsystemisdamagingpublicandenvironmentalhealthinsteadofpromotingit. Inancientcitiesaroundtheworld,agriculturewasincorporatedintoacity sframework.roman, NativeAmerican,andPersiancivilizations(tonameafew)alldevelopedhighlyurbanizedareas thatalsohadthecapacitytoprovidethecitywithitsfoodneeds,mostofwhichwasproduced withinthecity sboundaries. 20 Walledmedievalcitiesoftenhadfarmingspaceinsidethecity walls andsimilarinteriorgardenspaceexistedincastlesandmonasteriesaswell. 21 Similarly, citiesthroughouthistoryoftenorientedprivatebuildingsandresidencesinsuchawaythat allowedspaceforadjacentgardensandorchardsorinteriorcourtyardgardens. 22 IntheUnitedStatesthroughouttheIndustrialEraandwellintothe20 th century,animalstables, feedlots,stockyards,andprocessingfacilitiesexistedwithincitylimits.forexample,newyork Citydistilleriesandbrewerieshadadjacentcattlestables.Intheseoperations,thecattleatethe 19 ProcessingandValueAdded.(n.d.).GeorgiaOrganics.RetrievedApril13,2011,from 20 Mougeot,L.(n.d.).UrbanFoodProduction:Evolution,OfficialSupportandSignificance.CityFarmer: Canada'sOfficeofUrbanAgriculture.RetrievedMarch21,2011,fromhttp:// 21 Mougeot,L.(n.d.).UrbanFoodProduction:Evolution,OfficialSupportandSignificance.CityFarmer: Canada'sOfficeofUrbanAgriculture.RetrievedMarch21,2011,fromhttp:// 22 Mougeot,L.(n.d.).UrbanFoodProduction:Evolution,OfficialSupportandSignificance.CityFarmer: Canada'sOfficeofUrbanAgriculture.RetrievedMarch21,2011,fromhttp:// 10
11 leftovergrainandproduced swillmilk, which,althoughpoorquality,wastheprimarysourceof milkforcityresidents. 23 Likewise,Chicagoisinfamousforitsvaststockyards,whichprovided 82%ofthemeatconsumedintheUnitedStatesattheturnofthe20 th century. 24 However,aspreviouslydiscussed,astheIndustrialEra sdense,pollutingmanufacturingdistricts continuedtoexpand,theneedtoregulateurbanfoodproductionandmanufacturingindustries becamedire andthisledtourbanismpatternswithanincreasinglyrigidandformalseparation ofuses.inresponsetotheextremedensitiesofindustrialcities,utopianplannersofthe20 th centurybeganfavoringdecentralizedurbanforms,whereincountrysideandcitywouldno longerbedistinguishable.oftenintheseidealizedplans,agriculturalproductionprimarily informedthespatialconfiguration. 25 Whilemostoftheseutopianplansnevercametofruition, thisplanningmovementeffectivelypurgedcentralcitiesofthoseusesdeemedunhealthyand unattractive,includingpublicmarketsandfoodproductionfacilities. 26 Simultaneously,withthe riseofzoningregulationsandautomobiletransportation,agriculture,animalproduction,and foodprocessingmovedfurtherintothecountryside andthroughoutthemiddle20 th century, Americanfoodsystemstransformedintotheindustrialagriculturesystemsweknowtoday. 27 URBANAGRICULTUREPRODUCTION Eventhoughthemajorityofcities foodsupplyandproductionfacilitiesmovedintoruralareas duringthemid 20 th century,thereisahistoricaltraditionintheunitedstatesofurban gardeningintimesofeconomicstressandinsecurity.forinstance,governingofficials campaignedforresidentstosupplementfoodsupplieswithhomegardeningduringthe 23 Philpott,T.(2010,August3).TheHistoryofUrbanAgricultureShouldInspireitsFuture.GristABeacon inthesmog.retrievedmarch22,2011,fromhttp://community wealth.org/_pdfs/articlespublications/urban ag/article philpott.pdf 24 Philpott,T.(2010,August3).TheHistoryofUrbanAgricultureShouldInspireitsFuture.GristABeacon inthesmog.retrievedmarch22,2011,fromhttp://community wealth.org/_pdfs/articlespublications/urban ag/article philpott.pdf 25 Waldheim,C.(n.d.).NotesTowardaHistoryofAgrarianUrbanism.Places:DesignObserver.Retrieved March26,2011,fromhttp://places.designobserver.com/entry.html?entry= Bonfiglio,O.(2009).DeliciousinDetroit.AmericanPlanningAssociation,August/September, Bonfiglio,O.(2009).DeliciousinDetroit.AmericanPlanningAssociation,August/September,
12 depressionofthe1890s,andwithvictorygardensduringworldwarsiandii.likewise,during theseperiodsofwar,schoolfarmingprogramswerealsoofteninitiatedasameansof supplementingfoodsupplyandeducationchildren. 28 Andtoday,bothgardeningandfarm toschoolprogramsaregrowinginpopularity. Onecouldarguethattoday semergenteconomic,environmental,andhealthcrisisis comparabletotheperiodsofeconomicdistressofthe20 th Centuryandthatitwarrantsa responselikethatgivenduringthecountry spreviousdepressionsandperiodsofwar.in2009, FirstLadyMichelleObamaplantedagardenonthesouthlawnoftheWhiteHouse.Itisquite tellingthatthelastvegetablegardenplantedattheu.s.whitehousewaseleanorroosevelt s victorygardenduringworldwarii. 29 Photo1.WarGardenattheSheridanSchoolduringWorldWarI Bonfiglio,O.(2009).DeliciousinDetroit.AmericanPlanningAssociation,August/September, White,Mason,andMayaPrzybylski."theproductivesurface."Onfarming.Barcelona:Actar;, Print. 30 Levenston,M.(n.d.).SheridanSchoolWarGardens between1910and1920 CityFarmerNews. NewStoriesFrom'UrbanAgricultureNotes' CityFarmerNews.RetrievedMay3,2011,from school war gardens between 1910 and 1920/ 12
13 Photo2.1941ComicBookCoverPromotingVictoryGardens Levenston,M.(n.d.).Superman,BatmanandRobinareVictoryGardenersin1941 CityFarmerNews. NewStoriesFrom'UrbanAgricultureNotes' CityFarmerNews.RetrievedMay3,2011,from batman and robin are victory gardeners in 1941/ 13
14 Photo3.1942TomatoContainerGarden,London. 32 Additionally,inthe1970s,manyAmericancitiesinstituted Farm a Lot programstoencourage residentstofarmvacantcitylots andtoday,programssuchasthisareresurgingincitiesacross thecountry. 33 City,state,andfederalpolicy makersarebeginningtoreacttothegrowing concernsoverfoodsecurity,andmanyarereinstatingandrevampingvacantparcelandpublic landsgardeninginitiativesthathavebeenforgottenfordecades.forinstance,thestateof Michiganrecentlyreinstatedavacantlotgardeningprogram the GardenforGrowth Program, whereby,for$50,residentsleasevacantstatelandsforgardening Levenston,M.(n.d.).1942 Waitressesgathertomatoesfromcontainergardenonstreet City FarmerNews.NewStoriesFrom'UrbanAgricultureNotes' CityFarmerNews.RetrievedMay3,2011, fromhttp:// gather tomatoes from container garden onstreet/ 33 Bonfiglio,O.(2009).DeliciousinDetroit.AmericanPlanningAssociation,August/September, Bonfiglio,O.(2009).DeliciousinDetroit.AmericanPlanningAssociation,August/September,
15 However,creatingproductivefoodenvironmentsdoesnothavetoberelegatedsolelytovacant parcels.communitieseverywhereareusingalmostanyopenspaceavailable.inadditiontothe traditionalparkplots,opportunisticgardenersareutilizingroofs,frontyards,sideyards, medians,andeveninterstateunderpasses. 35 Publicallyandprivatelyinitiatedprogramsto implementedibleurbanlandscapes,fruit bearingsidewalkplantings,andvacantparcelgardens arealsogrowingrampantinmanycities. Notonlyissuchgardeningspaceavailablethroughoutanygivencity,butthesespacesalsohave thepotentialtobehugelyproductive.inriodejaneirointhe1980s,gardenerscultivatedabout 425acresofopenspaceunderelectricaltransmissionlinesandyielded$10millionworthof produce. 36 Small scaleeffortslikecommunitygardensandhouseholdplotscanpotentially produceahousehold syearlyvegetableneeds. 37 Inadditiontogardening,urbanpublicspacecanalsobeusedforanimalgrazing.Inmanycities aroundtheworld,sheepandgoatsareusedasanecologicallyfriendlyandpicturesquemeans oflawnmowing. 38 FiveU.S.statetransportationdepartmentscurrentlygrazeanimalsalongside roadwaystokeepgrassesdown. 39 Theseanimalscouldpotentiallybepermanentfixturesincity parksandopenspacesandusedasasourceformilk,cheese,andevenwool. 35 Schell Lambert,T.(2010,March18).HayesValley:AFormerFreewayTurnsintoaFarm GOOD. GOODMagazine.RetrievedMarch21,2011,fromhttp:// valley a formerfreeway turns into a farm/ 36 Mougeot,L.(n.d.).UrbanFoodProduction:Evolution,OfficialSupportandSignificance.CityFarmer: Canada'sOfficeofUrbanAgriculture.RetrievedMarch21,2011,fromhttp:// 37 Barrs,R.(n.d.).UrbanAgricultureinVancouver.CityFarmer'sUrbanAgricultureNotes.Retrieved March21,2011,fromhttp:// 38 Sidawy,E.(2017,November10).SheepGrazingaLondonPark.InnovCity.RetrievedMarch21,2011, fromhttp:// grazing a london park/ 39 Latshaw,G.(2009,July1).MoreUseGrazingSheep,GoatsAgainstInvasiveWeeds,Vines.USAToday. RetrievedMarch21,2011,fromhttp:// animalgrass_n.htm 15
16 POTENTIALBENEFITSOFURBANAGRICULTURE Inresponse,localgovernmentsarebeginningtogiveconsiderationtofoodsystemsplanning initiativesthatencouragelocalfoodproduction,improveaccesstohealthyfood,andpromote environmentalandeconomicsustainability.communitygardens,householdfoodproduction, andurbanagricultureallhavearoleinaddressingtheseissues.asustainableagriculturesystem hasthepotentialtoboostlocaleconomies,leadtofinancialsavingsforfamilies,improveoverall health,andbenefitcommunitiesandtheenvironment. Anetworkoflocalfoodsourcescanalsoofferlocaleconomicdevelopmentopportunities. Urbanagricultureandcommunitygardenscanprovideopportunitiesforentrepreneurship.If zoningordinancesallow,andifagrowerfulfillstherequirementsofotherapplicablehealthand foodsafetycodes,householdgardeners,communitygardeners,andurbanfarmerscansellfood directlytomarketsandrestaurants.likewise,iftheregulatoryframeworkallows,gardeners couldalsoselltheirsurplustoneighborsdirectlyfromtheircommunitygardenplotorhome.in additiontothebenefitsoflocalentrepreneurship,urbanagriculturecanalsofosterdirectlocal relationshipsbetweenfoodproducersandconsumers andthisnotonlybuildscommunity,as discussedabove,butsmallfarmingstart upscanalsohavelargeimpactsonlocaleconomies. Smallfarmingoperationscanalsoboostregionaleconomiesbykeepingconsumerdollarslocal. Researchofindependenthogfarmsrevealsthatsmallindependentfarmscreatemorejobs, morelocalincomepercapita,andgeneratemorelocalspending moneygeneratedbythese smallerscaleagricultureproducersismorelikelytostayinthelocalcommunityandproduce localeconomymultipliereffects. 40 Furthermore,researchdonebytheMaineOrganicFarmers andgardenersassociationestimatesthataweeklyexpenditureof$10perfamilyonlocalfood wouldinject$104millionintothelocaleconomy. 41 InGeorgia,ifeveryhouseholdspentonly 40 Horrigan,L.,Lawrence,R.S.,&Walker,P.(2002).HowSustainableAgricultureCanAddressthe EnvironmentalandHumanHealthHarmsofIndustrialAgriculture.EnvironmentalHealthPerspectives, 110(5), FoodSecurityCoalition.(2003).UrbanAgricultureandCommunityFoodSecurityintheUnitedStates: FarmingfromtheCityCentertotheUrbanFringe.NorthAmericanUrbanAgricultureCommittee,October 2003,
17 $10aweekonlocallyproducedfood,$1.9billioncouldbeinjectedintoGeorgia slocal economy. 42 Alocalfoodsystemalsohasthepotentialtogenerateregionalenergysavingsanddecreased transportationcosts.withmorelocalfoodmarketsandincreasedavailability,householdswill potentiallymakefewertripstothegrocerystore.plus,localanddirectproducer/consumer patternsdecreasetotalfoodmilestraveled.thisdecreasecreatesdirectmonetarysavingsand ismoreenvironmentallysustainable.alocalnetworkofcommunitygardens,urbanagriculture, andhomegardeningcanalsohavefinancialimpactsatthehouseholdlevel.fewerhousehold tripstoadistantgrocerystoredecreasefamilyandindividualtransportationcosts. Abackyardgardenorplotinacommunitygardencanalsoleadtosignificantsavingsona household soverallfoodcosts.accordingtothegeorgiadepartmentofagriculture,a10x20 gardenplot,whichcouldfitintheaveragebackyard,cancreate$600infreshfoodannually. 43 A groupofphiladelphiagardenersreporteda$700savingsinyearlyfoodcostsperfamily. Andintermsofcitywideyields,inSingapore,urbanfarmsproduce80%ofthepoultryconsumed bysingaporeresidentsand25%ofconsumedvegetables. 44 Likewise,astudyfoundthatLondon residentscouldproduce232,000tonsoffruitsandvegetablesifthecityembracedurban agriculture. 45 ABostoncommunitygardeningprojectreportsa12,000 poundyieldbetween twogardenslocatedonvacantcitylots WhatIfGeorgiansAteGeorgiaProduce?.(n.d.).GeorgiaOrganics.RetrievedApril12,2011,from 43 APlanforAtlanta'sSustainableFoodFuture.(n.d.).ALFI AtlantaLocalFoodInitiative.Retrieved February12,2011,fromhttp:// 44 FoodSecurityCoalition.(2003).UrbanAgricultureandCommunityFoodSecurityintheUnitedStates: FarmingfromtheCityCentertotheUrbanFringe.NorthAmericanUrbanAgricultureCommittee,October 2003, FoodSecurityCoalition.(2003).UrbanAgricultureandCommunityFoodSecurityintheUnitedStates: FarmingfromtheCityCentertotheUrbanFringe.NorthAmericanUrbanAgricultureCommittee,October 2003, FoodSecurityCoalition.(2003).UrbanAgricultureandCommunityFoodSecurityintheUnitedStates: FarmingfromtheCityCentertotheUrbanFringe.NorthAmericanUrbanAgricultureCommittee,October 2003,
18 Creatingcommunityaccesstofreshfoodcanalsohaveapositiveimpactonthehealthofurban residents,particularlyforunderservedcommunities. 47 Researchshowsthataccesstofreshfood marketscanleadtoincreasesinnutritionalfoodintake,decreasesinhealthcarecosts,and improvementinoverallmentalandphysicalhealth. 48 Localaccesstofoodproduction,especially intheformoflocalfarmersmarketsandcommunitygardens,canalsohavearegenerative effectonsocialandpublichealth andalthoughthesebenefitsareperhapsmoreintangible thanmonetarysavings,theyarenolesscritical.communitygardensandlocalmarketshavethe potentialtofosteralocalidentityandbuildcommunitybonds. 49 Asawarenessofthe consequencesoffoodchoicecontinuestorise,thepublicisincreasinglydemandingfood productswithtraceableorigins and,forsomeconsumers,knowingtheoriginsofonesfood createsasenseofconnectednesswithotherpeopleandplaces. 50 Manyurbanconsumerswithoutlocalfarmersmarkets,orwithouttheabilitytogrowtheirown food,areshowinganincreasingdesiretofeelaconnectionwiththeirfoodsource,whetheritbe ageneralassurancethatfoodwasproducedorganicallyoranactualrelationshipwiththe farmerherself.andsuchconsumersarefindingcreativewaystomakethisconnection. Virtual gardens areemergingontheinternet.onebritishweb company, MyVeggiePatch, allows urbancustomerstoparticipate(viatheinternet)ingrowingtheirowngardenplotlocatedin ruralengland.customerslogontothewebsitetoviewtheirplotandgiveinputonplot maintenance andafterharvest,theproducefromtheirplotisdeliveredtotheirdoor. 47 FoodSecurityCoalition.(2003).UrbanAgricultureandCommunityFoodSecurityintheUnitedStates: FarmingfromtheCityCentertotheUrbanFringe.NorthAmericanUrbanAgricultureCommittee,October 2003, FoodSecurityCoalition.(2003).UrbanAgricultureandCommunityFoodSecurityintheUnitedStates: FarmingfromtheCityCentertotheUrbanFringe.NorthAmericanUrbanAgricultureCommittee,October 2003, Shigley,P.(2009).WhenAccessistheIssue:WhatCitiesAreDoingtoGetHealthyFoodinto UnderservedNeighborhoods.Planning,75(8), Holloway,L.(2002).VirtualVegetablesandAdoptedSheep:EthicalRelation,AuthenticityandInternet MediatedFoodProductionTechnologies.Area,34(1),
19 Likewise,anotheronlinecompanyallowscustomerstoadoptasheeplocatedinItalyandplay theroleofavirtualshepherd thecustomerthenpurchasesthesheep sofferings:milk,cheese, wool.whilevirtualshepherdingisprobablyamusingandacreativesolutiontourbanfood deserts,ifcitydwellersfindthemselvesthisdesperatelydisconnectedfromtheirfoodsuppliers, moretangibleoptionsexistandshouldbeincorporatedinamericancities.communitygardens, localurbanagricultureoperations,andlocalfarmcsa scanplayasignificantroleintheprocess ofprovidinghealthyfoodenvironmentsforurbanconsumers. OBSTACLESTOURBANAGRICULTURE Althoughcitiesarereevaluatingtheirregulatoryframeworksandcomprehensiveplansinan efforttoaddressthenewdemandforfoodplanning,manyobstaclesandchallengesexistfor thoseseekingtoinitiateanurbanagricultureproject,whetheritbeabackyardgarden,a communitygarden,orurbanfarmwithcommercialintentions.inadditiontoissuesof economicsandthesuitabilityofland,shortgrowingseasons,time,knowledge,andskillscanbe obstaclesforcitydwellersseekingtosupplementtheirnutritionalneedswithgardening. Maintainingagardenorraisinganimalstakesatimecommitmentthatmightbeimplausiblefor manyworkinghouseholds.likewise,unlessraisedonafarm,mostpeoplemightnothavethe knowledgeorskillstosuccessfullyraisefood.however,communitygardensandfarmtoschool programscanofferopportunitiesforeducation. Availabilityandaffordabilityoflandissometimesalsoproblematicforthoseseekingtofarmfor profit.eventhoughpropertyvacancyratesaresoaringtoday,anindividualororganization seekingtoinitiateacommunitygardengenerallycannotaffordtopurchaseland andurban propertyvaluesmostlikelypriceoutcommercialfarmersgiventhelimitedprofitpotentialof smallscaleagriculture.toovercomethis,minneapolisrecentlyinitiatedalandassessment process,wherebypubliclyownedvacanciesarerankedbasedonredevelopmentpotentialand likelihood. 51 TheresultsofMinneapolis vacantlandassessmentestimatedthatthecitywould stillhaveasurplusofvacantland,evenwithfuturegrowthandredevelopmenttrends. Minneapolis UrbanAgriculturePlansetsforthrecommendationsforpreservingthislandfor agricultureusesandpoliciestoencourageitsaffordabilityandavailability. 51 TheUrbanAgriculturePlan.(n.d.).CityofMinneapolis,Minnesota OfficialWebSite.Retrieved February12,2011,fromhttp:// 19
20 However,eventhoughtheremightbeasurplusofavailableland,muchofitisstillprivately ownedincitieswithoutrobustvacantlandbankingprograms.privatelyownedlandcannot simplybezonedforanexclusiveagricultureusewithoutriskinglegaltakingslawsuits.52 Therefore,citieswithamajorityofprivatelyownedvacanciescouldimplementotherpolicies thatincentivizeagricultureinurbanareas. Map1.VacantorUnderutilizedParcelsinFultonCounty.Forcitiessufferingfromsoaringvacancyrates forresidentssufferingfromalackofhealthyandaffordablefoodchoices,urbanagricultureoffersa sustainablemeansofbeginningtoaddresstheseissues.asdiscussedbelow,atlantaandfultoncounty haveanabundanceofvacantandunderutilizedproperties.perhapsinconjunctionwithinitiativesalready 52LaCroix,C.J.(2010).UrbanAgricultureandOtherGreenUses:RemakingtheShrinkingCity.Urban Lawyer,42(2),
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