Mapping from Space. Dr. Karsten Jacobsen Institute of Photogrammetry and GeoInformation Leibniz University Hannover

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1 Mapping from Space Dr. Karsten Jacobsen Institute of Photogrammetry and GeoInformation Leibniz University Hannover Contents 1. Introduction 2. Sensors for mapping 2.1 components, techniques 2.2 existing and announced optical satellites with their special solutions 2.3 radar satellites, basic information about SAR 2.4 laser scanner (LIDAR) 3. Sensor orientation 3.1 basic information and available image products 3.2 orientation procedures 3.3 results achieved with different sensors and orientation methods 4. Mapping 4.1 available DEMs detailed analysis of SRTM-DSM 4.2 generation of digital surface models by image matching and LIDAR 4.3 accuracy analysis of DSMs 4.4 filtering of DSMs 4.5 generation of orthoimages 4.6 information contents depending upon GSD and imaging conditions

2 1. Introduction Information from: Ground survey today only economic for small areas Photogrammetry with aerial images and LIDAR sometimes difficult access, partially classified, no allowance for photo flight, airplane and camera must be available, geo-reference by ground control points Photogrammetry with unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) (model aircraft, model helicopter, balloon, kite) for small areas, survey of sites, but not for inspection of larger areas Photogrammetry with optical space images no problem with access to images, fast overview over large areas, improved sensor resolution more details, partially absolute geo-reference Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) from space and air for special purposes perspective photo 2.1 Sensor Types CCD-line scanner panoramic image CCD-line scanner with different view directions in orbit photographic material scan direction flight direction Orbit 1 Orbit 2 flexible view direction perspective digital image classical view to side

3 2.1 Rotation of satellite Modern sensors with high agility, can change view direction very fast and precise by means of reaction / momentum wheels -fast rotating gyro if accelerated or slowed down moment to satellite will rotate at least 1 per axis Modern high resolution optical space sensors rotate the whole satellite for and during imaging Reaction wheels gyro axis fixed to satellite (strap down) Control moment gyro axis stable in inertial space faster rotation of satellite Traditional change of view direction by rotation of mirror only view across orbit during imaging ~ constant orientation in relation to orbit - SPOT 5 also permanent change of mirror for compensation of earth rotation 2.1 Imaging orbit IKONOS: scan also against orbit direction scan against orbit direction IKONOS imaging TechMex project Polish boarder

4 2.1 Sensor Geometry t 0 f t 1 pan color Arrangement of QuickBird CCD-lines t 2 Merged image line from different imaging instants IKONOS CCD-lines multispectral, pan reverse, pan forward 2 pan combinations because of TDI active only in one direction 2.1 Sensor Geometry Mismatch of CCD-lines as F(h) correct only for reference height H0 one pixel mismatch at h: for IRS-1C/1D: 450m for QuickBird: 2.8km t = α hg / v t= function of hg

5 2.1 time delay of color imaging QuickBird IKONOS Pan-sharpened images (merge of panchromatic and color) the color is following the moving cars in case of IKONOS, it is in front of cars in case of QuickBird showing the time difference in imaging 2.1 Ground sampling distance (GSD) pixel size GSD = distance of neighboured pixel centres on ground for user it looks like the pixel size on ground Over-sampling: neighboured projected pixels overlap 50% e.g. OrbView-3: 2m pixel size on ground, 1m GSD SPOT 5 supermode: 5m pixel size, 2.5m GSD OrbView-3: staggered CCD-lines pixel Incidence angle = ν Pixel size on ground in view direction: pv= p/cos²ν in orbit direction: po= p/cosν e.g. n = 30, p=1m pv = 1.33m po=1.15m but sampling rate not changed pixel every 1m 1m GSD, 1.15m pixel size in orbit direction

6 2.1 Direct sensor orientation Satellites equipped with gyros (for determination of attitude change), star sensors and positioning system like GPS or DORIS Star sensors for update of gyros Stereo Position Errors North Direct sensor orientation determination of orientation without control points with standard deviation up to 10m 4m (often more problems with national datum) 10 m 15 m 25 m East Discrepancies of direct sensor orientation by IKONOS (from Gene Dial, GeoEye- SpaceImaging) 2 Limitation of presented systems Only systems available for public use are described military systems not included Today often dual use of systems use for military purposes + free capacity for civilian use Dual use systems dominating just with the money from civilian projects the high number of systems cannot be financed e.g. the very high resolution US American systems are dominated by military funds the successor systems GeoEye-1 and WorldView have fixed contracts with military, Space Imaging did not got a contract from military, causing financial problems leading to sell by OrbImaging (OrbImaging + Space Imaging GeoEye)

7 2.2 Launch schedule of high resolution optical satellites SPOT m GSD More and more high resolution optical satellites are available the mayor change for mapping application came with IKONOS in 2000, today 6 civilian or dual use satellites with resolution of 1m and better are in space, more will follow soon sensor SPOT 1-4 SPOT 5 SPOT 5 HRS MOMS-02 / -P IRS-1C/1D, Resourcesat KOMPSAT Terra ASTER IKONOS EROS A QuickBird OrbView 3 EROS B FORMOSAT 2 IRS-P5 Cartosat 1 ALOS KOMPSAT-2 Resource DK1 2.2 High resolution optical sensors pixel size (nadir) [m] 10 / 20 5 (2.5) / 10 5 x / / (23.5) / (30, 90) 0.82 / / / / / 4 1 / 3 swath / / (142) (70) [km] pointing intrack - +/ / , ,0,27 - +/ /-45 0, 27.2 free view direction free view direction free view direction free view direction free view direction free view direction 26 fore, 5 after -24, 0, +24 free view direction free view direction pointing across

8 2.2 Very high resolution Pan-sharpened QuickBird image, Zonguldak 0.61m GSD corresponds to analog aerial image 1 : Announced very high resolution satellites Cartosat-2 (India) 1m GSD for 2007, 10km swath (launched, calibration phase) GeoEye-1 (former name: OrbView-5)(USA, GeoEye OrbImage) 2007, 41cm /1.6m GSD, swath 15.2km announced absolute geo-positioning standard deviation 4m for nadir WorldView-1 (USA, Digital Globe) mid 2007, 45cm GSD (only pan), 16km swath, high capacity, very flexible, announced absolute geo-positioning standard deviation 2.5m WorldView-2 (USA, Digital Globe) 2008, 45cm / 1.6m GSD 8 spectral bands, 16km swath, announced absolute geo-positioning standard deviation 3.7m for nadir THEOS (Thailand) 2007, 2m / 6.5m, swath 22km Pleiades (France) 0.7m / 2.8m GSD, , swath 20km TURKSAT 2008/2009 1m GSD not complete list permanently extended Synthetic aperture radar satellites with up to 1m GSD planned for 2007 TerraSAR X (Germany), Cosmo Skymed (Italy) WorldView-1

9 2.2 QuickBird WorldView (Digital Globe) 2.2 Comparison of very high resolution satellites OV-3 = OrbView-3 WV = WorldView DG = Digital Globe GeoEye 2007 GeoEye GeoEye GeoEye-1 and WorldView shown with 0.5m GSD because of restrictions in distribution, launch of GeoEye-1 scheduled before WorldView-1

10 2.2 WorldView-2, spectral bands Band Wavelength (nm) Pan Coastal Blue Green Yellow Red Red Edge Near IR 1 Near IR Legend: = QuickBird Legacy Band = New Spectral Band Standard multispectral bands Red, Blue, Green, Near-Infrared + 4 new bands Coastal, Yellow, Red Edge, Near-Infrared Added spectral diversity provides ability to perform change detection/surveillance, camouflage detection GSD: 0.45m / 1.8m, swath 16.8km, imaging capacity 3.5 times enlarged NV Small optical satellites system UOSAT 12, UK KITSAT 3, South Korea SunSAT, South Africa Alsat 1, Algeria BilSat 1, Turkey BNSCSat, UK NigeriaSat, Nigeria TopSat, UK Beijing-1, China launch GSD [m] pan / MS 10 / MS MS 12 / MS 32 MS 2.5 / / 32 swath [km] 10 / / remarks CCD arrays DMC DMC arrays DMC DMC no TDI DMC With exception of KITSAT and SunSAT satellites produced by Surrey Satellite Technologies (SSTL) Use of of the shelf components, partially CCD arrays instead of CCD-lines Cooperation in disaster monitoring constellation (DMC) in the case of natural disasters, cooperation mapping within 24 hours Planned: RazakSat, Malaysia 2.5m GSD; Vin-Sat-1, Vietnam 4m RapidEye, Germany (5 satellites), 6.5m; Alsat-2, Algeria, 2.5m

11 2.2 Vertical accuracy of ground points SZ = height base Spx Spx = standard deviation of x-parallax = GSD* factor base height By simple theory better vertical accuracy if relation height : base = small In reality better automatic image matching if images more similar smaller base, optimal result depending upon area 2.2 Stereo in orbit Cartosat-1 stereo sensor with 2 optics h/b=1.44 orbit first imaging second imaging height base Flexible satellites able to generate stereo models in one orbit limited time interval object under same imaging conditions (shadow) Orbit 1 Orbit 2 imaged area IKONOS Maras h/b = 7.5 OrbView-3 Zonguldak h/b = 1.4 Traditional stereo configuration e.g. SPOT view to side from different orbits disadvantage time delay of second scene

12 2.2 effect of seasonal change to panchromatic SPOT images June August 2.2 Stereo systems: ASTER, SPOT-HRS, Cartosat-1, ALOS ASTER nadir , 15m GSD h/b = 2.0 SPOT 5 HRS +/-20 5m x 10m GSD h/b=1.2 Advantage: always stereoscopic coverage Cartosat-1 launched May optics 26 ahead, 5 behind t for nadir orientation 58 sec h/b=1.44 Flexible orientation rotation to side possible swath: 30 km 2.5m GSD ALOS PRISM, nadir and +/ m GSD, h/b=1.0 or 2.0

13 2.2 Why stereo sensors? Stereo in orbit also possible by flexible satellites but loss of capacity by stereo imaging QuickBird: price of stereo scene = 2.3 x single scene, but takes 9 times the imaging capacity like a single scene not economic for DigitalGlobe, by this reason poor order conditions QuickBird: slewing 300km takes 62 seconds OrbView-3: slewing 300km takes 31 seconds IKONOS: slewing 300km takes 25 seconds WorldView: 10 / 9 seconds 2.2 DSM generation with Cartosat-1 By matching height model of visible surface (digital surface model = DSM) and not like reference digital elevation models (DEM) with height of bare ground Automatic image matching with Hannover program DPCOR based on least square matching with region growing (Otto Chau method) no restriction by y-parallax r < 0.6 r>0.6 Frequency distribution of correlation coefficients for typical sub-areas Mausanne, January 84% r > 0.6 Mausanne, February 93% r > 0.6 Warsaw 94% r > 0.6

14 2.2 High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) Mercator-1, Pegasus-project VITO, Belgium MEDUSA camera Alternative between spaceborne and airborne systems operating partially autonomous for long time in altitudes 14km (outside aeronautic control) Belgian Flemish Institute for Technology Research VITO made first test flight with HALE UAV Mercator-1 of Pegasusproject in 2006, starting 2007 operational with digital camera 3 spectral bands, x 1200 pixels, f=330mm, pixel size: 5.5µm GSD 30cm later extension of swath width, SAR and LIDAR Mercator-1 may stay for 6 weeks in elevation of approximately 18km, taking images in areas without cloud coverage operational speed: 18m/sec 2.2 conclusion for imaging systems More and more high resolution sensors are available and planned for near future 1m GSD today available from 4 countries, 2-3 more countries up to 2008 in addition more countries with up to 2.5m GSD Flexible satellites or stereo systems (or combination) Absolute georeference without control points in near future sufficient for medium scale maps, but problem with datum of national coordinate system space images today in competition to aerial images selection just based on economic conditions and availability SAR is becoming more important HALE UAV will be also another tool with resolution between space and aerial images

15 2.3 Synthetic Aperture RADAR (SAR) direction across orbit + distance Higher frequency Lower frequency 2.3 SAR ground resolution cτ = length of pulse = range resolution ground resolution range for nadir view Θ = 0.0 ground resolution = infinity SAR images not possible for nadir view, only possible for inclined view Usual ~ incidence angle Θ

16 2.3 Wavelength Radar Band wavelength [cm] Ka K Ku X C S L UHF P longer wavelength: better penetration of vegetation shorter wavelength: more details, more accurate 2.3 Radar penetration of forest X-band C-band P-band 2.4 3,75cm cm cm reflection close to top reflection close to top close to surface dense conifers ~ 6m above ground young trees ~ surface clear cut penetration of mud ~0.5m

17 2.3 InSAR, tropical rainforest Brazil P-band height model X-band height model Grey value coded height model P-band penetrating vegetation, X-band DSM = top of vegetation Rombach, AeroSensing 2.3 Radar imaging F=foreshortening L=layover S=shadow imaging systems = synthetic aperture Radar (SAR) one component = direction (across synthetic antenna), other component = slant range problems with dislocation of elevated objects ν = incidence angle ν h dl dl = dh tan ν stronger influence of elevation depending upon incidence angle like for optical images Optical images: dl = dh tan ν

18 2.3 Interferometric SAR (InSAR) Single pass interferometry: One active sensor, two passive sensors 3D-determination of location based on direction in flight axis and 2 distances by interferometry precise determination of distance differences Direct sensor orientation (IMU + GPS) required 2.3 INSAR - influence of wavelength fringes close to contour lines L-band 15cm 30cm Shorter wave length: more precise but more problems with de-correlation C-band 3.75cm 7.5cm

19 2.3 Interferometric SAR = InSAR Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) outboard antenna main antenna From 56 southern up to northern latitude DSMs from SRTM are available free of charge in the internet point spacing 3 arcsec = 92m at the equator Bias (systematic errors) can be removed with control areas SZ ~ 3m for flat and open areas - in mountainous areas loss of accuracy by interpolation 2.3 Interferometric SAR (InSAR) Intermap TopoSAR (formerly AeS-1, AeS-2, AeS-3) different frequencies, P-, L- and X-band Single-pass interferometry in X-band, repeat-pass interferometry in P-band Vertical accuracy up to: X-band: 5cm 50cm P-band: 50cm AeS-1: X-band Polarization: HH Pulse frequency: 1.5kHz 16 khz resolution up to 0.5m flying height: m swath: 1 15km

20 Mode Base length wavelength ground resolution Swath width polarization Typical flying height 2.3 Airborne SAR X-band single pass 2m, 4m 3cm 2m, 1m, 0.5m 3 8 km HH 3-9 km P-band repeat pass as desired (50m, 80m) 74cm 2.5m 4km HH or HH, VV, HV/VH 5km Example of airborne SAR: Intermap TopoSAR (formerly AeroSensing AeS-1) Two-frequency, multi-polarization system with X-band and P-band operated separately X-band InSAR based on two antennas operated simultaneously P-band InSAR required base length not possible, so repeat pass required repeat pass = passing with one antenna two times the area 2.3 Airborne SAR Typical speed Flying height Swath width band Antenna elevation Base length Best ground resolution Intermap STAR-3i, STAR-4 STAR-3i 750 km/h 3 10 km 3 10 km X, 3.1cm m 1.25m STAR-4 400km/h 3 9 km 8 11 km X, 3.1cm m 1.25m (up to 0.5 m)

21 2.3 TerraSAR-X. German Aerospace Centre DLR in cooperation with ASTRIUM Synthetic Aperture RADAR (SAR) X-band, 9.65 GHz (λ=3.1cm) ScanSAR with up to 1m pixel size flying height: 515 km, polar orbit (97.44 ) incidence angle: launch 2007 data distribution by Infoterra (ASTRIUM) operation and process by DLR, Germany second satellite for TanDEM-mission (TanDEM X) for generation of global DEM by IfSAR with up to 2m accuracy and 12m spacing Program start Wavelength Radar P-band 2.5m pixel, view from right X-band, 1m pixel, view from left TOPOSAR (formerly AeS1) airborne SAR apparent shift of road road not visible, only by sequence of buildings P-band usually with lower ground resolution Typical Radar noise (Speckle)

22 2.3 reason for speckle problem of radar imaging 1 pixel 1 pixel overlay 1 λ = bright overly 1/2 λ = dark coherent radiation interference 2.3 Radar imaging F=foreshortening L=layover S=shadow imaging systems = synthetic aperture Radar (SAR) one component = direction (across synthetic antenna), other component = slant range problems with dislocation of elevated objects ν = incidence angle ν h dl dl = dh tan ν stronger influence of elevation depending upon incidence angle like for optical images Optical images: dl = dh tan ν

23 2.3 Feature dependent reflection M. Rombach 2.3 SAR-image optical image SAR aerial, X-band 1.5m ground pixel aerial image, 1.5m ground pixel EuroSDR test data set

24 2.3 Radar coherence Coherence = correlation of interferometric radar images range: by simple theory it should be close to 1.0 but in reality disturbed by thermal noise, atmosphere, data processing, different view directions, change of object and conditions in case of multi-pass interferometry Coherence image Coherence indicating accuracy of InSAR height model problems with water surfaces, in case of multi-pass interferometry problems with objects with volume scattering (forest) 2.3 Interferometric SAR (InSAR) Accuracy strongly dependent upon vegetation Under optimal conditions (use of ground control areas) in tidal zone (open and flat, no vegetation) up to SZ = 0.05m Under usual conditions more realistic: SZ = 0.5m In tropical areas with P-band SZ ~ 2m InSAR DSM Reference DEM 50m Reference DEM Height profile 200 m InSAR DSM Comparison difference caused by forest Rombach, AeroSensing

25 2.3 InSAR, P-band X-band height model Overlay X-band + P-band height Corresponding ortho image model color coded by height Combination of X-band + P-band for estimation of canopy height Andersen, McGaufhey, Reutebuch, Schreuder, Agee, Mercer, ISPRS Analysis of InSAR height model Airborne InSAR TopoSAR (AeS-1) X-band flying height: 3.2 km swath: 2km ground resolution: 0.5m DEM spacing: 1m all points without 5% outliers open areas without 5% outliers RMSZ 1.42 m 0.85 m 0.75 m 0.37 m bias 0.48 m 0.35 m 0.12 m 0.07 m minima m m m m maxima m 4.63 m 8.23 m 1.66 m group all points influenced by vegetation and buildings, also problems at river banks no signal from water bodies, points also influenced by neighbored trees, problems with overlay effects at dikes no normal distribution of discrepancies Rijkswaterstaat, Netherlands

26 2.3 Advantages disadvantages of airborne InSAR Weather independent, active system use also during night, not influenced by rain or clouds, so also fast determination of floodings Fast method for covering large areas Economic for large areas, not for small areas because of high basic cost With P-band also DEM in rainforest areas not highest accuracy, but nearly no alternative solution Laser scanner more detailed and more precise, but expensive and time consuming for large areas With single pass InSAR also speed determination of moving objects General problems in build up areas (layover, shadow, corner reflection) Typical specification: DSM: up to SZ = 0.5m DEM: up to SZ = 0.7m spacing 5m spacing 5m 2.3 SAR-image optical image SAR aerial, X-band 1.5m ground pixel aerial image, 1.5m ground pixel EuroSDR test data set

27 2.3 Mapping SAR-image X-band, 1.5m pixel EuroSDR test data Trudering 2.3 Mapping SAR-image C-band, 4 m pixel EuroSDR test data Copenhagen

28 2.3 differential InSAR (DInSAR) Comparison of 2 InSAR scenes by correlation Change of ground height here movement of a volcano 2.3 DInSAR based on ERS - ERS - Interferogram 19. Dec Feb subsidence s in a coal mining area 5cm 10cm -(fringes)

29 2.3 subsidence by coal mining If height changes not too large very precise method, problems with de-correlation of fringes Dashed lines = height profiles by leveling Solid lines from DInSAR problems with de-correlation for larger values and noise by vegetation 2.4 Laser scanning (LIDAR) Determination of object height by distance and direction from aircraft Positioning of aircraft by relative kinematic GPS positioning + inertial measurement (IMU) Tendency: higher flying altitude larger swath width, higher frequency, registration of multi pulse return Pulse laser dominating for aerial application, continuous wave for close range application

30 2.4 Laser scanning (LIDAR) Railway Single Trees Forest Buildings Highway (Ramps) 2.4 DEM by laser scanning color coded laser scanner DEM 3D-view to laser scanner DEM height exaggerated

31 2.4 history of laser scanning 2.4 Airborne laser scanning status More than 70 commercial organizations, more than 50 commercial systems - mainly in North America and Europe, only few in other areas - Flying height: 50m 5000m object point spacing: 0.25m 10m - combination with other sensors like digital cameras, scanner, IR-sensors - geometric improvement by control areas and strip adjustment - filtering of objects not belonging to ground, automatic vectorization - also height from objects without contrast - active system, no sun light required (only for additional imaging systems necessary)

32 2.4 Airborne laser scanning status - proven technique, standard in some countries since years - high density of points on ground required for break lines high number of points, reduction to required number - automatic filtering to required surface (visible surface or solid ground) - standard deviation of Z of 15cm can be reached in open areas and if improved by control areas + crossing strips + sufficient calibration Trends: -higher flying altitude - higher frequency - imaging laser and / or combination with imaging system - multiple pulse instead of only first or last or first + last pulse 2.4 DEM generation by survey administration in Lower Saxony, Germany Under German conditions laser scanning including required ground survey same expenses like photogrammetry plus required ground survey, but more details especially in forest areas

33 2.4 Airborne laser scanning advantages, disadvantages - nearly independent from environmental conditions - possible day and night missions - use of direct sensor orientation - no need for control points or areas if not high accuracy requirement, for high accuracy control areas required - high point density (1 5m) - high accuracy - forested areas are covered, if forest not too dense, also information about solid ground + additional information about tree height - small width of strip - expensive, but additional information and fast process - only height, no structure information (if not combined with camera) 2.4 Airborne laser scanning

34 2.4 Laser Scanning basic principle of pulse scanner Laser pulse Determination of distance from sensor in aircraft to object Received energy run time = 2 R c c = velocity of light 2.4 Laser Scanning basic principle Pulse scanner use of laser pulses outgoing distance = ½ c t L dominating system return signal Continuous wave scanner continuous sinus wave determination of phase difference distance = ½ * c * tl very accurate but problems with overlapping return signals outgoing return signal

35 2.4 Laser Scanning laser beam Height information first pulse last pulse Laser intensity image 2.4 Laser Scanning, orientation, synchronization Direct sensor orientation required = relative kinematic GPS + IMU position of projection center + attitude information GPS: 1 2 Hz IMU: Hz Laser scanning: Hz Solution: registration in same time base + interpolation, laser range + scan angle recorded at same instant Calibration required boresight misalignment of IMU to laser scanner -difficult for not imaging systems (height changes up + down like at dams in different direction required to get position from height model) Positions at first in geocentric or ellipsoid coordinates required in national height system geoid undulation should be known or only local projects possible

36 2.4 Laser Scanning, accuracy Laser range: +/- 5cm for lower flying heights Scanner angles: +/ IMU roll and pitch: +/ IMU yaw (heading): +/ Kinematic GPS positions: +/- 15cm (relative +/- 5cm) Improvement possible with control areas 2.4 Laser Scanning, influence of roll Influence of roll to nadir angle Horizontal position 17 cm 17 cm 17 cm 17 cm Vertical position 0 cm 2 cm 3 cm 6 cm under condition of error in roll = 0.01 flying height = 1000m Z Systematic error in orientation causing zigzag effect for different flight direction X, Y Strip - often available effect but domination of GPS-shift

37 New: 2.4 OPTECH ALTM operational altitudes up to 3000 m - reflectance image - pulse rate up to points per second limited by speed of light ±7 o Scan angle (14 o Field of View) ±20 o Scan angle (40 o Field of View) Altitude 500m 1000m 2000m 3000m 500m 1000m 2000m 3000m Scan Freq.[kHz] Swath Width [m] X-spacing [m] Y-spacing [m] Pts./m Influence of scan angle Nadir view quite more pulses from bare ground than with inclined view by this reason limitation of scan angle Same problem with view shadows in build up areas view shadow

38 2.4 Airborne Laser Scanners FALCON II TopoSys LMS-Q560 Riegl ALTM 3100 OPTECH range 1600 m 850 m 3500 m range acc. / res. -- / 1.95 cm ± 20 mm (+20ppm*r) m / 1 cm measurement pulse rate 83 khz 66 khz m rate laser wavelength --- near infrared --- IFOV mrad 0.3 or 0.8 mrad number of targets per pulse first, last return first or last return full wave 4 range meas. incl. last return full wave scanning fiber scanner rot. ploygon mirror --- mechanism FOV 14.3 deg 45 deg 0 to 50 deg (incr. 2 deg) limit FOV*scan rate < 1000 scan rate 653 Hz Hz 70 Hz min. angular deg --- step width angular deg --- resolution intensity measurement yes 16 bit 12 bit laser source detector 2.4 Airborne continuous wave (CW) -Laser Scanner ScaLARS from University of Stuttgart, Inst. of Navigation average emitted opt. radiation laser wavelength beam divergence (IFOV) max. slant range at 20% reflectivity sample spot diameter at flying height h = 650 m ranging frequencies (modulation) standard deviation (slant range) sample rate dynamic range scanrate adjustable FOV in flight direction across flight direction CW laser diode Si avalanche photodiode (APD) 0.8 W 810 nm 1 mrad 750 m 0.65 m 1 MHz, 10 MHz 0.04 m 0.17 m 7.5 khz 50 db max. 20 Hz ±9.7 deg / ±13.4 deg ±13.6 deg / ±19.0 deg swath width at (h = 700 m / ±13.6 deg) (h = 650 m / ±19.0 deg) max. distance between adjacent samples in flight direction at 60 m/s across flight direction at h = 650 m intensity measurement Thiel, Wehr, Hug, University Stuttgart 338 m 448 m 3 m 2.4 m 13 bit

39 2.4 Scanning Systems Scanning System Principle f Notes Rotating 45 o mirror khz crucial, max. movement of aircraft < IFOV per revolution Oscillating mirror Palmer Scan 47,1 khz 26,7 khz Mirror has to be accelerated permanently size as small as possible Low-priced Mirror Rotating prism 26,7 khz Circular ground pattern compact design, high rotation speed Fiber switch 7,5 khz Manual production, difficult calibration 2.4 Laser scan pattern Z -shaped Parallel lines Elliptical scan

40 Advantage: in center part of swath view from different direction, calibration information in flight line Disadvantage: in any case inclined view 2.4 elliptical scan 2.4 Distribution of ground points (ALTM 1020) From flying height 900m Exact fit of foot print from neighbored flight pass cannot be guaranteed

41 2.4 Reflection of laser signal Lambertian-type surface (most natural surfaces) Often partially directed Specula-type surface no response (glass roofs, water...smooth wet surfaces no laser scan flight after strong rainfall) weather conditions affect reflectance properties surface wetness changes reflectance properties from Lambertian to specula maximum operational altitude decreases strongly with simultaneous appearance of steep, smooth, wet and black surface properties Visible in intensity image 2. Conclusion for sensors for mapping The variety of sensors and sensor types is growing Today more possibilities for mapping Caused by the improved resolution and availability of images mapping based on information from space is growing very fast Competition between space, HALE and aerial systems use of just available information Special systems like InSAR for medium resolution and medium accuracy DEMs Intermap generates DEMs for whole countries partially based on own cost For high precision and high resolution LIDAR in some countries dominating Today partially competition between survey administrations and commercial companies

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