Biosensor/Transducer Qualification Using the Model 2450 Interactive SourceMeter SMU Instrument
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- Ada McCormick
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1 Biosesor/Trasducer Qualificatio Usig the Model 2450 Iteractive SourceMeter SMU Istrumet Itroductio Through much techological advacemet i biology/ medicie, semicoductor electroics, ad aosciece, bioelectroics has the potetial to chage persoal healthcare, stregthe security systems, help protect the eviromet, food, ad water supplies, ad improve overall our way of life. Through semicoductor ad aoscale techologies, advacemets i oivasive physical biosesors, lab-o-a-chip tools, prosthetics/implats, ad medical telematics systems are possible. Sigificat research is takig place i the area of biosesors. A biosesor is a aalytical device, typically used for the detectio of a aalyte, the substace or chemical costituet that is of iterest. They are used to gai a uderstadig of bio-compositio, structure, ad fuctio by covertig a biological respose ito a electrical sigal. I may cases, a device as simple as a trasistor is the detector. But whether the desig is usig a semicoductor, electrochemical, or optical architecture approach, proper testig of the electrical portios of these sesors is eeded to qualify the desigs for further developmet. May biosesor/trasducer techologies that geerate electrical outputs offer umerous advatages i the desig of detectio systems to meet speed ad ease of use criteria. With proper testig ad calibratio, electroic biosesors ca meet these criteria while providig reliable results that miimize false positive ad egative idicatios. Biosesor/trasducer uits are referred to simply as biosesors, ad they are defied as devices that do oe or more of the followig: 1. Detect, record, covert, process, ad trasmit iformatio regardig a physiological chage or process. 2. Utilize biological materials to moitor the presece of various chemicals i a substace (aalyte). 3. Combie a electrical iterface (trasducer) with the biologically sesitive ad selective elemet. More specifically, a biosesor cotais a bioreceptor, which is a biomolecule that recogizes the target aalyte. The trasducer portio of the biosesor coverts the recogitio evet ito a measurable sigal that correlates with the quatity or presece of the chemical or biological target that is of iterest. A geeralized biosesor model is show i Figure 1. Aalyte Fluid Chael Bioreceptor Layer Substrate Trasducer Layer (Reactio electrodes, ICs, other compoets) Electrical Sigal Figure 1. Represetatio of a geeric biosesor. Performace criteria for a biosesor system iclude: Physical Commuicatio Chael (chage i io cocetratio, curret flow, voltage, resistivity, temperature, etc.) 1. Speed ad ease of use (testig/calibratio/maiteace) by o-techical persoel. 2. Selectivity to target aalyte. Iterferece of chemicals must be miimized for obtaiig the correct result. 3. Sesitivity/resolutio. 4. Liearity. (Maximum liear value of the sesor calibratio curve. Liearity of the sesor must be high for the detectio of high substrate cocetratio.) 5. Accuracy/repeatability. 6. Dyamic rage. High aalyte cocetratios will ot degrade sesor usability. 7. Evirometally robust (relatively isesitive to temperature, electrical oise, physical shock, vibratio, etc.) 1
2 Biosesor/Trasducer Qualificatio Usig the Model 2450 Iteractive SourceMeter SMU Istrumet 8. Usable lifetime/adaptability. 9. Safety/itegrity (for persoel, equipmet, ad aalytes.) For faster detectio with a readable electrical output, researchers are developig biosesors that combie bioreceptor fuctios with semicoductor devices for use i portable uits i the field, such as i home medical moitorig systems. Similarly, biosesors are beig researched for use with implatable medical systems. Sesor Desigs There are various types of biosesor desig approaches. Oe approach is to use a oligoucleotide sesor ad ucleic acid reactio to idicate the presece of a pathoge. Aother desig employs surface plasmo resoace (SPR) to detect biological molecules such as protei ad DNA. A SPR-based sesor ca provide label-free studies of molecular iteractios i real time usig a sesor chip iterface that facilitates attachmet of specific ligads to the trasducer surface ad provides a sesitive measuremet of surface cocetratios. Tissue-based sesors are also beig developed. They utilize livig cells o chips that ca react fuctioally to the presece of both biological ad chemical threat agets. Because they are desiged to mimic the fuctio of multi-cellular huma tissue, these sesors should respod to both kow ad previously ucharacterized agets. The trasducer seses small chages i electrical charges o the surface of the livig cells. Electrochemical biosesors are also beig applied for may applicatios. Electrochemical biosesors are ormally based o ezymatic catalysis of a reactio that produces or cosumes electros. (Such ezymes are rightly called redox ezymes.) The sesor substrate may cotai three electrodes: a referece electrode, a workig electrode, ad a couter electrode. The target aalyte is ivolved i the reactio that takes place o the active electrode surface, ad the reactio may cause either electro trasfer across the double layer (producig a curret) or ca cotribute to the double layer potetial (producig a voltage.) Oe ca either measure the curret (rate of flow of electros is ow proportioal to the aalyte cocetratio) at a fixed potetial or the potetial ca be measured at zero curret (this gives a logarithmic respose[1].) Aother example, the electrochemical potetiometric biosesor (potetial produced at zero curret), gives a logarithmic respose with a high dyamic rage. Such biosesors are ofte made by scree pritig the electrode patters o a plastic substrate that is coated with a coductig polymer, ad the some protei (ezyme or atibody) is attached. They have oly two electrodes ad are extremely sesitive ad robust. All biosesors usually ivolve miimal sample preparatio as the biological sesig compoet is highly selective for the aalyte cocered. The sigal is produced by electrochemical ad physical chages i the coductig polymer layer due to chages occurrig at the surface of the sesor. Such chages ca be attributed to ioic stregth, ph, hydratio ad redox reactios, the latter due to the ezyme label turig over a substrate. Field effect trasistors (FETS), i which the gate regio has bee modified with a ezyme or atibody, ca also detect very low cocetratios of various aalytes as the bidig of the aalyte to the gate regio of the FET causes a chage i the drai-source curret[1]. Recetly, i the field of aosciece, there have bee may advaces i biosesors through the use of graphee. Graphee was discovered i 2004 ad is drawig sigificat attetio due to its uique physiochemical, high sesitivity, ad superior mechaical, thermal, ad electrical properties. Grapheebased biosesors ca potetially have a much higher sesitivity because graphee is a two-dimestioal sigle atomic layer of graphite that ca maximize the iteractio betwee the surface dopats ad adsorbates. Graphee has much lower Johso oise compared to carbo aotubes that are fuctioalized for bio-detectio applicatios. Johso oise is the oise i a resistive material caused by thermal motio of charge carriers. Therefore, a very small variatio of the carrier cocetratio i a graphee biosesor ca cause a otable variatio of electrical coductivity that ca be measured. Depedig o the aalyte ad bioreceptor, the trasducer portio of a biosesor could utilize oe of the followig mechaisms: Amperometric: Amperometric devices detect chages i curret. They measure currets geerated whe electros are exchaged betwee a biological system ad a electrode. Potetiometric: Some reactios cause a chage i voltage (potetial at costat curret) betwee electrodes that ca be detected or measured. Coductive: Coductimetric devices detect chages i coductivity betwee two electrodes. Resistive: Resistivity is the iverse of coductivity, ad ca be measured with similar methods. 2
3 Capacitive: Whe the biorecogitio reactio causes a chage i the dielectric costat of the medium i the viciity of the bioreceptor, capacitace measuremet method ca be used as a trasducer. Piezoelectric: I a piezoelectric material there is a couplig betwee its mechaical ad electrical properties. It ca be used to create a electrical oscillator whose frequecy ca be varied ad measured by varyig a mass applied to its surface. I the case of a biosesor, that mass ca chage due to the reactio takig place o the surface. Thermal: These devices measure chages i temperature. Optical: Optical biosesors correlate chages i cocetratio, mass, or umber of molecules to direct chages i the characteristics of light. For this method to work, oe of the reactats or products of the biorecogitio reactio has to be liked to colorimetric, fluorescet or lumiescet idicators. A optical fiber is sometimes used for guidig light sigals from the source to the detector. Sesor Characterizatio: The First Step i the Validatio Process Developmet programs are aimed at overcomig desig limitatios i biosesor systems. For example, oe of the problems i biosesor desig is achievig a stable, reproducible iterface betwee the biological affiity elemets ad a iorgaic trasducer elemet. The desire to miiaturize biosesors for hadheld portability, while still achievig adequate sesitivity, imposes techical challeges i the couplig of biomolecules to trasducer surfaces. Therefore, fast ad accurate electrical characterizatio of biosesors i the developmet lab ad i productio is essetial for qualifyig the sesor/trasducer iterface, as well as the ultimate operatio of a biodetectio system. A typical test program task is to develop or verify performace metrics for the biosesor. Because of the complexity i extractig cell ad tissue sigatures of aget activity ad respose, it is ofte desirable to coduct direct curret-voltage (I-V) characterizatio o key compoets of the biosesor. I-V characterizatio requires oly a small fractio of the time eeded for most types of fuctioal testig but is a powerful predictor of full-fledged operatio. For example, I-V data ca be used to study aomalies, locate maximum or miimum curve slopes, ad perform reliability aalyses. Depedig o desig specifics, I-V characterizatio is ofte suitable for sesors based o amperometric, potetiometric, coductive, resistive, ad thermal priciples. Usually, I-V testig applies a voltage or curret to the device uder test (DUT) ad measures its respose to that stimulus. Temperature measuremets may also be take. The test procedures may ivolve probig of itegrated circuits to apply the stimulus to certai coectios pads ad measure the DUT respose o others. Depedig o the DUT, sigal levels may be quite low, requirig highly sesitive source ad measuremet istrumets ad test techiques that miimize exteral sources of error. Characterizig the Performace of Biosesors with a Source Measure Uit (SMU) Istrumet I may cases, biosesors will be used i portable systems by medical practitioers, military persoel, public safety forces, ad eve for home health care moitorig. This places restrictios o the sesors operatioal power requiremets ad may dictate the level of voltage or curret output that ca be provided to the measuremet circuitry. I battery-operated systems, sesor output curret ca rage from aoamps to milliamps ad voltage from aovolts to volts. Differet measuremet techiques ad tools are required for sigal levels at the opposite eds of such wide rages. Oe of the best tools for performig I-V characterizatio is the source measure uit (SMU) or SourceMeter SMU Istrumet. I I-V characterizatio, the itegratio of a DC source ad measurig istrumet ca be problematic because of itricate triggerig issues. Stated i the simplest possible terms, a SMU istrumet itegrates the capabilities of a precisio power supply (PPS) with those of a high-performace digital multimeter (DMM) i a sigle istrumet. For example, SMU istrumets ca simultaeously source or sik voltage while measurig curret, ad source or sik curret while measurig voltage. Figure 2 illustrates a SMU istrumet cofiguratio as a costat curret source ad voltmeter to measure the respose from the DUT. 3
4 Biosesor/Trasducer Qualificatio Usig the Model 2450 Iteractive SourceMeter SMU Istrumet I meter Local IN/OUT HI touchscrees ca drastically reduce traiig time, icrease operator accuracy, ad improve overall operatioal efficiecies. Remote SENSE HI I source V meter /Compliace DUT Remote SENSE LO Local IN/OUT LO Figure 2. SMU istrumet cofigured as a costat curret source ad voltmeter to measure the respose from the DUT. SMU istrumets ca also be used as stad-aloe costat voltage or costat curret sources, as stad-aloe voltmeters, ammeters, ad ohmmeters, ad as precisio electroic loads. Their high performace architecture also allows usig them as pulse geerators, as waveform geerators, ad as automated curret-voltage (I-V) characterizatio systems. The bipolar voltage ad curret sources of these istrumets are cotrolled by a microprocessor, makig I-V characterizatio much more efficiet, ad simplifyig istrumetatio set up. Whe a SMU istrumet is used, may differet test sequeces ca be stored i its program memory ad executed with a simple trigger sigal. Test data ca be stored i a buffer memory util a I-V sweep is completed ad the dowloaded to a PC for processig ad aalysis. With so may researchers from disciplies like biology, chemistry, materials, ad electrochemistry workig o biosesors ad other bioelectroics techologies, ease of use ad a low learig curve of the istrumet is very importat. Such researchers may ot have bee exposed to electrical characterizatio tools like the SMU istrumet but eed to perform I-V characterizatio of their devices i the lab. With advaces i touchscree techology ad the proliferatio of smart phoes ad tablets that drive ituitive operatio, touchscree graphical user iterfaces (GUI) o bech istrumetatio ca sigificatly reduce the learig curve ad overall ease of use. With a touchscree approach, users feel comfortable that they caot do aythig wrog; they istictively uderstad how to use the iterface. Touchscree systems ca make everyoe a expert user from the first touch, whether a ew istrumet user or the most experieced user. Compared to traditioal traiig methods, usig Figure 3. Advaced capacitive touchscree GUI o Keithley s Model 2450 SourceMeter SMU Istrumet. Keithley s Model 2450 Iteractive SourceMeter SMU Istrumet eases the learig curve for o-traditioal users ad to sigificatly reduce the struggle to cofigure measuremet fuctios usig cumbersome, multi-layer meu structures ad cofusig multi-fuctio buttos. The Model 2450 uses a ico-based flat meu system just like that used o smart techology cosumer products, like the array of applicatio icos displayed o a tablet or smartphoe. Figure 4. The Model 2450 o-scree meu. Testig a BioFET Sesor As previously metioed, a trasistor field effect trasistor (FET) ca be fabricated to work with bio-materials to become a biosesor. The FET is a trasistor that uses a electric field to cotrol the shape ad hece the coductivity of a chael 4
5 of oe type of charge carrier i a semicoductor material. A BioFET cotais the followig parts: a semicoductor trasducer, a dielectric layer, a biofuctioalized surface, the aalyte, ad a referece electrode (the gate i FET terms) as show i Figure 5. Gate Oxide p Aalyte Figure 5. Coceptual drawig of a BioFET. The semicoductor BioFET trasducer is fabricated as follows. The dielectric layer is a oxide, such as silico dioxide, ad has two tasks. The first task is to isolate the chael of the FET from the liquid ad the secod is to electrostatically couple the surface layer charge ito the chael. O top of the dielectric is a biofuctioalized layer that exhibits immobilized biomolecule receptors able to bid the desired molecule. The aalyte is a solutio that cotais the dissolved sample molecules. The referece electrode allows adjustig the device so its sesitivity will be maximized. If the target molecules bid to the receptors, a chage i the surface charge desity occurs. This chage alters the potetial i the semicoductor ad thus the coductivity i the chael of the FET[2]. The BioFET ca be characterized usig two Model 2450 SourceMeter SMU Istrumets to perform I-V characterizatio of the sesor. Determiig the I-V parameters of a BioFET helps esure that they fuctio properly i their iteded applicatios ad that they meet specificatios. There are may I-V tests that ca be performed with the Model 2450, icludig gate leakage, breakdow voltage, threshold voltage, trasfer characteristics, ad drai curret. The umber of Model 2450 SMU istrumets required for testig depeds o the umber of FET termials that must be biased ad measured. This example applicatio shows how to perform a drai family of curves (Vds-Id) o a three-termial FET. The techiques could be applied to BioFET devices. Equipmet required Two iteractive Model 2450 SourceMeter SMU Istrumets Four triaxial cables (Keithley part umber 7078-TRX-10) A metal-shielded test fixture or probe statio with female triaxial coectors A triaxial tee coector (Keithley part umber 237-TRX-T) Cablig for exteral hardware triggers is differet depedig o the commad set beig used: For SCPI commads: oe DB-9 male-to-male 9-pi cable to coect the digital I/O ports o the back of the Model 2450 istrumets to each other. For TSP commads: oe TSP-Lik crossover cable (oe Keithley Model CA-180-3A is icluded with the Model 2450) to coect the TSP-Lik ports o the rear pael of the Model 2450 istrumets to each other. Cablig from the computer to the Model 2450 istrumets is differet depedig o the commad set beig used: For SCPI commads: two GPIB cables, two USB cables, or two Etheret cables For TSP commads: oe GPIB cable, oe USB cable, or oe Etheret cable Set up remote commuicatios This applicatio ca be ru from ay of the supported commuicatio iterfaces for the istrumet (GPIB, USB, or Etheret). The rear-pael coectio locatios for the remote commuicatio iterfaces are show i the followig figure. Figure 6: Model 2450 remote iterface coectios. Set up exteral hardware triggers To eable sychroizatio betwee the two Model 2450 SMU istrumets for steppig ad sweepig voltages, coect the 5
6 Biosesor/Trasducer Qualificatio Usig the Model 2450 Iteractive SourceMeter SMU Istrumet exteral triggers of each istrumet to the other. The cablig used depeds o the Model 2450 programmig commad set chose to cotrol the test. Coectios for the SCPI commad set If you are usig the SCPI commad set, coect a DB-9 maleto-male cable betwee the digital I/O coectors o the back of each of the istrumets, as show i the figure below. Figure 8: Coectios for the TSP commad set. Figure 7: GPIB ad DB-9 cable coectios for the SCPI programmig example. The figure above also shows the commuicatio cablig for usig the GPIB remote commuicatio iterface. GPIB cable #1 coects the GPIB port o the computer (cotroller) to the IEEE-488 coector o the rear pael of Model 2450 #1. GPIB cable #2 is coected betwee the IEEE-488 coectors of the two Model 2450s. Whe coectig the computer ad Model 2450 SMU istrumets usig USB cables, each istrumet must be coected to the computer with a separate USB cable. Whe coectig the computer ad Model 2450 SMU istrumets usig a Etheret coectio, the istrumets ad computer must be coected usig a Etheret switch or hub. Coectios for the TSP commad set Whe usig the Test Script Processor (TSP ) commad set for remote programmig, a Model CA-180-3A crossover cable (oe is icluded with the Model 2450) coects the TSP-Lik ports o the rear paels of the Model 2450 istrumets to each other (see figure below). For GPIB commuicatio from the computer to the Model 2450 istrumets, oly oe cable is ecessary from the GPIB iterface to oe of the Model 2450 IEEE-488 iterfaces (Model 2450 #1 i the figure above). Set the TSP-Lik ode of Model 2450 #1 to ode 1 ad the TSP-Lik ode of Model 2450 #2 to ode 2. To chage the Model 2450 TSP-Lik odes from the frot pael: 1. Press the commuicatio status idicator o the upper left corer of the home scree, ad the select Chage Settigs. The SYSTEM COMMUNICATION widow opes. 2. O the TSP-Lik tab, select the butto ext to Node ad eter the ode umber you wat. 3. Select Iitialize. 4. Press the MENU key to retur to the home scree. Repeat this istructio for all Model 2450 SMU istrumets i the TSP-Lik etwork. Device coectios To perform a drai family of curves, cofigure both Model 2450 SMU istrumets to source voltage ad measure curret. I this circuit, the Force HI termial of Model 2450 #2 is coected to the gate of the BioFET, ad the Force HI termial of Model 2450 #1 is coected to the drai. The source termial of the BioFET is coected to the Force LO termials of both Model 2450 SMU istrumets. A third Model 6
7 2450 is required whe sourcig ad measurig from all three termials. A I-V test cofiguratio for a BioFET usig two Model 2450 SMU istrumets is show i the followig figure. The followig figure shows a graph of a typical FET family of curves. The results may vary for a BioFET ad the type of biofuctioalized materials used. A Force HI Gate Aalyte Model 2450 #1 Sweeps Drai Voltage (V D ) ad Measures Drai Curret (I D ) Force LO Model 2450 #2 Steps Gate Voltage (V G ) Oxide p A Force HI Force LO Figure 9: Three-termial I-V test cofiguratio for a BioFET. The coectios from the rear pael termials of both Model 2450 SMU istrumets to the BioFET are show i the followig figure. Figure 11: Typical FET drai family of curves geerated with two Model 2450s. Force HI Model 2450 # TRX-10 Triax-to-Triax Cables Force LO Triax Tee Force HI Gate Oxide p Aalyte Force LO Model 2450 #1 Figure 10: Two Model 2450s cofigured to test a threetermial BioFET. For this example, four triaxial cables (Model 7078-TRX-10) are used to coect from the Model 2450 rear-pael female triaxial coectors to the BioFET device, which is mouted i a metal-shielded test fixture with female triaxial coectors. The Force LO termials of the both Model 2450 istrumets are coected to the Source termial of the BioFET usig a triaxial tee coector (Model 237-TRX-T). For the SCPI or TSP programmig sequeces to test the FET, please refer to the Model 2450 User s Maual, Sectio 7, Measurig I-V Characteristics of FETs. 3 Cs of Accurate Testig: Cablig, Coductors, ad Capacitace Regardless of the istrumetatio used, coectios betwee it ad the DUT are importat parts of a measuremet system. Uderstadig ad maagig the limitatios of these coectios is crucial for accurate measuremets. Noise sources, cable legth, ad cable capacitace ca affect the quality of ay measuremet, but the lower the sigal level, the more importat these issues become. To miimize problems, the measuremet circuit ad its cables ad coectors should be matched to test sigals. I additio, cables ad test leads should be carefully routed ad mouted. Cablig. Whe evaluatig a cable for the measuremet applicatio, cosider these issues: How much electrical oise exists i the test eviromet? Noise ca be defied as ay udesirable sigal that is impressed upo a sigal of iterest. Sources of electromagetic oise iclude AC power lies, motors ad geerators, trasformers, fluorescet lights, CRT displays, computers, radio trasmitters, etc. Depedig o the ature of the sigal ad the oise, it may ot be possible to separate them oce the sigal has bee acquired at the istrumetatio iput termials. To the extet possible, route cables ad test leads so their exposure to oise sources is miimized. The mout them rigidly i place 7
8 Biosesor/Trasducer Qualificatio Usig the Model 2450 Iteractive SourceMeter SMU Istrumet so they caot move ad cause the geeratio of spurious EMFs i the presece of electromagetic fields. What is the distace betwee the sigal source ad measuremet system termials? Wire has electrical resistace, which depeds o its compositio, legth, ad diameter. Resistace icreases with icreasig legth ad decreasig wire diameter. This resistace is a compoet of the total cable effects that become part of a measuremet circuit s aalog iput. High cable resistace i cojuctio with low aalog to digital iput resistace ca result i a sigificat voltage drop through the itercoect wirig, resultig i measuremet errors. Coductors. The coductors used i shielded or ushielded cable ca be solid or straded wire. Solid wire results i miimum sigal atteuatio, but straded coductors provide more flexibility ad may be easier to route ad mout. Coductors may be bare copper, plated with silver, or tied with solder. Coector ad coductor materials should match to miimize resistace ad thermally geerated EMFs. For the highest sigal itegrity, use cables with shielded coductors. Shieldig reduces electromagetic oise picked up by sigal leads. It is also helpful i reducig electromagetic radiatio from coductors carryig high frequecy sigals. Shieldig is costructed with differet types of wire braid, or a combiatio of wire braid ad foil. Multi-layer or multi-braid shields are more effective tha a sigle layer i atteuatig sigal pickup ad radiatio. However, this teds to make cables stiffer ad more difficult to route ad mout. Cosider these poits whe selectig shielded cable: Higher frequecy oise is more difficult to atteuate, ad requires more elaborate shieldig. Simple spiral wire wrap foil is the least effective type of shieldig. Tight braidig, double braidig, or braidig plus foil offer more effective shieldig. Caustic atmospheres, moisture, etc. ca reduce the effectiveess of shieldig. I some cases, these cotamiats ca leach ito a cable ad degrade the shieldig far beeath the outer isulatig jacket. If possible, avoid testig i such eviromets. Capacitace. For may biosesors, the output sigal ca be modeled as a voltage source i series with a resistace. Similarly, a aalog istrumet iput ca be modeled as a meter i parallel with a iput resistace. Durig a measuremet, the istrumet iput absorbs a small bias curret that the source must be able to supply. The itercoect cablig is a essetial part of this circuit, ad ca itroduce resistace, capacitace, ad iductive effects that deped o legth, gauge, compositio, routig, ad the physical eviromet. For high speed, rapidly chagig sigals, circuit iductace ad capacitace ca be serious obstacles to measuremet speed, eve if sigal source ad istrumet impedaces are properly matched. Ofte, spurious capacitace is more of a problem tha iductace. Sigals origiatig from a high impedace source take loger to stabilize at the istrumet iput, because the sigal s limited curret level requires more time to charge the cable capacitace. I that case, takig a measuremet before the sigal has settled leads to erroeous readigs. Coclusios Qualifyig sesors for bio detectio systems ad aalytical istrumets ca be simplified i the early stages of developmet by usig I-V characterizatio techiques. I may cases, these same techiques ca be carried over to productio testig of the sesors. Istrumet maufacturers are a valuable source of iformatio i applyig these techiques to a wide rage of sesor types ad i the selectio of the best measurig istrumets for both R&D ad productio testig. Refereces [1] Wikipedia, [2] [3] 2450 Iteractive SourceMeter Istrumet Users Maual, Rev. B. [4] Biosesor/trasducer qualificatio: a critical step for homelad security, Joatha Tucker, Keithley Istrumets, March
9 Specificatios are subject to chage without otice. All Keithley trademarks ad trade ames are the property of Keithley Istrumets, Ic. All other trademarks ad trade ames are the property of their respective compaies. A Greater Measure of Cofidece KEITHLEY INSTRUMENTS, INC AURORA RD. CLEVELAND, OH Fax: KEITHLEY BENELUX FRANCE ITALY MALAYSIA SINGAPORE BRAZIL GERMANY JAPAN MEXICO TAIWAN CHINA INDIA KOREA RUSSIA UNITED KINGDOM For further iformatio o how to purchase or to locate a sales parter please visit Copyright 2013 Keithley Istrumets, Ic. Prited i the U.S.A No
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