Projects, Project Management and the Project Manager. Phillip E. Grace EDG For Spring 2000 (completed May 2001) University of South Florida

Transcription

1 Projects, Project Management 1 Projects, Project Management and the Project Manager Phillip E. Grace EDG 7931 For Spring 2000 (completed May 2001) University of South Florida

2 Projects, Project Management 2 Introduction Both common sense and a consensus of experts indicate that a project tends to be much more successful and rewarding if tight control is established and maintained over all aspects of the project (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Kerzner, 2000; Kimmons, 1990; Kliem and Ludin, 1998). Indeed, Alessi and Trollip (2001) assert that, very often, the success or failure of a project hinges on how it is managed. Project management has long been a critical success factor in a wide range of fields, such as new product research, product development, engineering, and technology, and it is increasingly playing a key role in business (Overfield, 1998). Project management is also increasingly employed in the education and training fields, especially with technology-based instructional curriculum, such as computer-based instruction and Web-based training (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Burdman, 1999; Ellis, Wagner, and Longmire, 1999; Steed, 1999; Yourdon, 1997). As Kliem and Ludin (1998) tell us, many companies view projects as investments, integral parts of their strategic plans. This means the project managers must continually demonstrate their contribution to the bottom line (p. 3). They also declare that project management is the skill of the future. The main purposes of this paper are (1) to briefly overview the concepts of project and project management and (2) to present some of the critical facets of the project manager role in project management, particularly the sources and limitations of the project manager s authority and power. The intention is to provide an appreciation for the milieu within which project management is accomplished and, especially, within which the project manager must function.

3 Projects, Project Management 3 Projects and Project Management Before delving into the role of the project manager, it would be a good idea to first discuss the concepts of project and project management. Definition of a Project Kepner and Tregoe (1993, p. 1-1) define a project as a task of considerable magnitude that must be completed within budget and by a specific time; it is usually, but not always carried out but once. Kerzner (2000, p. 1) calls it an endeavor that has a definable objective, consumes resources, and operates under time, cost, and quality constraints. A project can be anything from building a new manufacturing plant to installing a new computer system to designing and developing a entire Web-based training site to writing a term paper for a graduate course in project management. No matter what the nature of a project, it will ideally consist of a discrete set of activities performed in a logical sequence to attain a specific result (Kliem & Ludin, 1998, p. 4). And as projects are normally of a short-term nature, they are usually imposed on an existing organizational structure, with people being assigned to projects on either a full- or parttime basis for the duration of their involvement with the project (Kimmons, 1990). A Consideration of Project Management Project management refers to the planning, scheduling, and controlling of a series of integrated tasks such that the objectives of the project are achieved successfully and in the best interest of the project s stakeholders (Kerzner, 2000, p. 2). Many others have offered their definitions of project management, but all appear to characterize project management as being the marshalling of resources toward achieving a specific end (Kimmons, 1990; Kliem & Ludin, 1998; Martin, 1976). In other words, project management is results oriented. However, as

4 Projects, Project Management 4 Kerzner (2000) points out, the term project management is sometimes used to include functions which he thinks are better classified as expediting techniques or command/control functions (p. 4). He distinguishes between these types of functions and real project management on the basis of timing of assignments and the level of authority vested in the project manager. Kliem and Ludin (1998) outline what can be considered the primary functions of project management: To Lead Persistent throughout the entire project management process, the leadership provided by the project s manager(s) (discussed later in the paper) is the driving force behind the project being executed both efficiently and effectively. It should be the inspiration to accomplish the goals and objectives at a level that meets or exceeds expectations (p. 4). To Define One of the very first steps in project management is to clearly determine and define the project s overall vision, goals, objectives, scope, responsibilities, and deliverables. This project delineation is usually encompassed in a document that is signed by all relevant parties. Plan In order to fulfill the vision and goals of the project, it is necessary to clearly identify the particular steps of how the project will be accomplished. Project management is intended to ensure that every step has been carefully considered and that all aspects of each step, such as personnel needs, financial resource needs, and timeframes have been indicated.

5 Projects, Project Management 5 Organize An essential function of project management is the orchestration of all the resources necessary for the efficient and effective execution of the project. This includes such activities as the organizing of teams, the allocation of resources, and budgeting. Control The successful management of projects requires an ongoing cycle of assessment of how well the project meets its goals and objectives. This function is accomplished through tasks such as collecting and assessing status reports, managing changes to baselines, and responding to circumstances that can negatively impact the project participants (p. 6). Close A very important function of project management is to insure that the project also concludes efficiently and effectively. Tasks for this function include compiling statistics, releasing team members, and preparing a lessons learned document. Approaches to Project Management Kimmons (1990) delineates three main methods of practicing project management, each reflecting a particular type of organizational structure and indicating where the authority over the projects resides. The first he refers to as the functional or departmental project organization. This type of project organization mirrors the traditional corporate organizational structure of permanent divisions, departments, sections, and units, with employees having permanent assignments in a particular division, department, and so on. A departmentalized project refers to a project that is assigned to the department that would be most logically involved in it. Although the departmentalized project is usually the least organizationally disruptive, it often results in confusion about which takes priority, the main departmental concerns or the project.

6 Projects, Project Management 6 A projectized organization, the second type of project management organization, assigns a dedicated project manager to manage the project. The clear priority for the project manager is the project, rather than any departmental concerns. While this type of organizational structure benefits the project, it can disrupt non-project business within the department, as well as result in the loss of the beneficial continuity that close, persistent departmental relationships provide. A third, hybrid approach to project management attempts to retain the advantages of both the departmentalized and projectized structures. In this matrix organizational scheme, project managers share management responsibilities with departmental managers. Variations of the matrix design reflect the relative levels of authority held by the project manager and departmental manager, with strong matrix referring to the project manager possessing greater authority and weak matrix meaning that the project manager holds less authority. The downside to this approach is that if the areas of authority are not well defined, it can easily result in managerial conflict where one or more of the managers authority becomes undermined and negatively affects the project. As Kimmons (1990, p. 15) notes, the matrix has been termed management by conflict due to the system design calling for the escalation of unresolved disagreement upwards to higher management. Kimmons (1990) also discusses a fourth, more recent approach to project management called project-driven organization. In project-driven organizations, project team members are employed only for the duration of the project, thus minimizing the cost of full-time employees. This approach is both a response to economic pressures and is a means for overcoming the hazards inherent to the other organizational designs.

7 Projects, Project Management 7 The Project Manager Having considered what a project is, as well as some of the broader aspects of project management, attention can now be turned to the role of project manager. The role of the project manager is, as one might expect, central to the project management process. Indeed, the project manager might be considered the linchpin to the whole operation and, as such, has, if not the most direct influence over the project s success or failure, certainly the most responsibility for its outcome. Kepner and Tregoe define the project manager as the individual given complete authority and responsibility to ensure that the project is effectively managed (1993, p. 31). While this may appear to be reasonable, others present a more constrained and problematic view of the project manager role (Ellis, Wagner, and Longmire, 1999; Kerzner, 2000; Kliem and Ludin, 1998). Kerzner (2000), in particular, appears to consider situations where the project manager has complete authority as being the exception rather than the rule. While he predicts that project managers will hold much greater, overall authority as the merits of project management become more obvious, he clearly sees this as a future prospect rather than the current state of affairs: In the future, project managers will be recognized for the value they contribute to the corporation s bottom line No longer will project managers be informed of the company s financial margin at the end of the fiscal year along with all the other nonexecutive employees of the company. They will be given the authority to address potential problems by proactively managing their projects rather than reacting to ongoing risk factors. (p. 4)

8 Projects, Project Management 8 The Sources of the Project Manager s Authority The question of the project manager s authority over a project is frequently discussed in the project management literature in terms of power. Kliem & Ludin (1998, p. 20) define power in the context of project management as the ability to influence key players in the decision-making process to achieve a goal. In other words, power means getting what one wants. They discuss the power of a project manager in context of the five sources of power delineated by French and Raven back (1959): Legitimate power The most substantial power a project manager can wield is the raw authority delegated to them by the senior executives/managers. While a project manager might be vested with little legitimate power, he/she still has some level of backing from the institution by virtue of his/her assigned responsibilities. Expert power Ideally, project managers are chosen according to their educational and professional credentials, as well as their people skills. Their expertise can hold considerable sway over other members of the project team as long as the latter continues to respect those characteristics. Reward power Since most project managers cannot usually provide material rewards, such as money, positive feedback and the dispensation of perks can go a long way toward compensating cooperation and compliance. Such perks might include sending team members to desired training events, assigning them to coveted tasks, or providing glowing performance reports that can lead to salary increases.

9 Projects, Project Management 9 Coercive power Even if project managers have little overt power to rule through the fear of punishment, they can engage in more subtle forms of coercion, such as assigning certain people to less desirable tasks or not inviting certain people to meetings. Referent power Depending on the individual project manager, traits such as charisma can move others to comply with the project manager s directives. Limitations of the Project Manager s Authority The actual power a project manager wields varies from one situation to another and is ultimately dependent on factors he/she has no control over, such as the point at which they are assigned to a project and the level of authority the project manager has over the project (Kerzner, 2000; Kimmons, 1990; Kliem and Ludin, 1998). Most of these factors are products of the project environment, which is determined by the approach taken to project management. It is ultimately the senior management that decides how to organize the project, as well as how much authority to grant the project manager. In effect, the particular organizational structure of the project can be seen as representing an authority (or power) continuum (Kimmons, 1990). In a departmentalized (or functional) organization, the departmental manager has much more influence over the project than does the project manager. While the project is a recognizably separate set of tasks and activities, it is still managed under the direction of department managers more or less as a department enterprise. In a projectized organizational structure, the project manager possesses the greatest authority. In this type of project environment, the project manager enjoys the level of control that Kepner and Tregoe ascribe to the role.

10 Projects, Project Management 10 In a matrix organization, however, project responsibilities are shared between the department and project managers (Kerzner, 2000; Kimmons, 1990; Kliem and Ludin, 1998). Typically, the departmental manager s responsibilities include assigning personnel to projects, ensuring the overall quality of the project, as well as training, development and career progression for project team members. The project manager s duties might include defining the scope of the work and the overall planning of the project, including budgeting and scheduling. The project manager might also set performance baselines, monitor the project progress, and produce periodic project reports (Kimmons, 1990). As mentioned previously, matrix organizations vary according to which manager (departmental or project) retains the lion s share of authority over the project. Thus, matrix organizations can also be viewed as a project manager authority/power continuum ranging from weak (meaning the project manager has little legitimate power) to strong (the project manager is more or less in control). As noted earlier, shared authority can be problematic, especially if the lines of authority are not delineated clearly (Kerzner, 2000; Kimmons, 1990; Kliem and Ludin, 1998). Kimmons (1990, p. 26) notes, split authority is often more equitable in theory than in actuality. It is not uncommon for project managers to start out in matrix organization at a disadvantage (Kimmons, 1990). This is because departmental managers ordinarily already have established, long-term relationships with the project team members. Kliem and Ludin (1998) note that project managers often feel powerless because they usually lack, among other things, the ability to hire and fire levels of authority usually reserved for the departmental manager. Thus, it is the departmental manager who will likely have the most influence over team

11 Projects, Project Management 11 members career in the long run and, thus, who will most likely be perceived as the primary authority by the team members. This can be the case even in a strong matrix organization. It is, therefore, the matrix organization that often poses the most problematic project environment for the project manager. In effect, then, the project manager is automatically handicapped in at least three important respects (Kimmons, 1990). First, while the relationship between the departmental manager and other team members is long-term, that between the team members and the project manager is relatively short. Second, the authority of the project manager is divided and is very often neither well defined nor understood by the other members of the project team. And, finally, the team members are quite likely to perceive the project manager as having little influence on their overall careers; that is, not likely to have an impact on pay increases, promotions, and the like). In addition, Kerzner (2000) notes that, in many cases, project managers are assigned to a project only after the planning phase is complete. In other words, they are not part of the project team until most of the planning decisions have been made and are only interjected into the project at the implementation phase. These managers are often underinformed about the project and, thus, have only a disjointed perspective on it. Having had little or no input in the various planning activities of the project, such as the budgeting and contracting processes, these managers bear the heaviest responsibility for the project s outcome. In these types of situations, Kerzner (2000) questions the rationality and fairness of making a project manager accountable for fulfilling someone else s plan. He notes the unreasonableness of expecting someone to keep a project on budget and on schedule when they have virtually no control over the budget.

12 Projects, Project Management 12 Kimmons (1990) echoes this sentiment when he states, the authority of the project manager must be commensurate with the accountability to which he is held (p. 21). Summary Project management has been declared the skill of the future (Kliem and Ludin, 1998). It has certainly taken on increasingly more importance over the years and has permeated a wide spectrum of concerns and fields. But like most human endeavors, project management, while of a single nature, is not of a single design. It comes in a variety of flavors. Yet, no matter what management approach is designated for a particular project, the project manager will be at the center of the project management process. And though he/she may bear the heaviest responsibility for a project s outcome, the project manager does not always possess the outright and unquestioned authority to insure the project s success. This is not to say that the project manager is ever powerless, for there are several sources of power that the project manager can tap at any juncture in and to fulfil any function of the project management process. However, project manager is not for the weak of heart, as it is a very stressful occupation that is often rife with actual and potential pitfalls.

13 Projects, Project Management 13 References Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (2001). Multimedia for learning: Methods and development (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Burdman, J. (1999). Collaborative Web development: Strategies and best practices for Web teams. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Ellis, A. L., Wagner, E. D., & Longmire, W. R. (1999). Managing Web-based training: How to keep your program on track and make it successful. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development. French, J. and Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In D. Cartwright & A. Zander (Eds.), Group dynamics. New York: Harper & Row. Kepner, C., & Tregoe, B. (1993). Project management: Process guide. Kepner-Tregoe Inc. Kerzner, H. (2000). Applied project management: Best practices of implementation. New York: Wiley & Sons. Kimmons, R. L. (1990). Project management basics: A step by step approach. New York: Marcel Dekker. Kliem, R. L., & Ludin, I. S. (1998). Project management practitioner s handbook. New York: AMACOM, Division of the American Management Association. Martin, C. C. (1976). Project management: How to make it work. New York: AMACOM, Division of the American Management Association. Overfield, K. (1998). Developing and managing organizational learning. Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development. Steed, C. (1999). Web-based training. Brookfield, VT: Gower.

14 Projects, Project Management 14 Yourdon, E. (1997). Death march: The complete software developer s guide to surviving mission impossible projects. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.