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1 7KHRU\RI6FLHQFHIRU(QJLQHHUV Dr. Kari Leppälä Managing director, Provisec Ltd. Teknologiantie 1, Oulu tel , Feel free to contact me, if you think I can help. That s why I give my coordinates! Content of the lecture Problems with technical papers and dissertations Comparison of science and technology The science of technology Typology of technical science papers The dynamic nature of science and technology Reading (supplementary; not required for course) How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33

2 Some conventions in my presentation According to the German and Scandinavian tradition I use science in its most general meaning: covering all branches of natural sciences, humanities, medicine and economy. I also address technology in a broad sense: 1. the tradition of promoting, developing and managing living conditions by different artificial tools, materials, objects, methods etc. 2. the modern, post- Galilei technology, applying methods of science (a more accurate definition will be given in the text). My text is addressed primarily to doctoral students preparing their thesis on some technology-related subject. Some students may even have professional expertise on engineering. The common factor is that their education has been engineering-oriented. Engineering is a practical skill. Making science is another kind of skill and I try to show that it is practical, too. Actually it is a practice How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33 :KDWLVVRGLIILFXOW LIDQ\WKLQJ LQWHFKQRORJ\UHODWHG VFLHQFHSDSHUV

3 Origin of my approach Problems I found (during my own PhD and while helping students and colleagues with their thesis): students with engineering background are insecure with scientific thinking many papers deal with engineering tasks so where is the science! there is a considerable lack of public and intellectual discussion about science, engineering and technology (especially true in Finland! Even the technicalscientific vocabulary of Finnish language is underdeveloped) technology is often regarded as a second-class art compared with science ( scientists are mad, engineers are dull ) My objectives: help to identify the mode of your work, by presenting a typology of technical science papers help to find out the scientific viewpoint and attitude towards your research themes encourage you to be critical and ask the right questions (but I will not guarantee that you ever get answers) NOTHING IS AS PRACTICAL AS A GOOD THEORY!! How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33 Example of software research There seems to be some conceptual difficulties regarding scientific research about technical topics- especially when it is performed within technical faculties or research centers. Problems with technology related research papers are not just my own finding. According to several researchers (Potts, Glass, Tichy, Zelkowitz, Wallace) 30 to 50 % of software research papers lack any type of empirical validation of results. Very few of the papers are formal in mathematical sense (which would allow analytical validation). Actually most studies are like design reports. If there is no empirical validation, their scientific contribution depends on significance or novelty of the topic, application area, or methods used and on proper treatment of the subject. Case studies and qualitative research are often used in social sciences and even in economics. Why not in research of engineering? How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33

4 &RPSDULVRQDQGFORVHXS RIVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\ Philosophy fundamentals in 15 seconds What is the principal problem of philosophy? +RZFDQZHJHWUHOLDEOHLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKHZRUOG Our position: the world possesses enduring, real properties and qualities, which do exist objectively - regardless of human comprehension or attention we may try to find out about them, although it may be very difficult, because of our limited capacity as humans science is a (proven) systematic way to find out things!!! it seems to be, that the nature is inexhaustible: the well of knowledge is infinitely deep How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33

5 Fields of human activity VRFLDOOLIH ILQHDUWV HVWKHWLFV VFLHQFHV UHOLJLRQ RUJDQLVDWLRQDO OLIH PXVLF GDQFH KXPDQLWLHV WHFKQRORJ\DQG SUDFWLFDOLVVXHV PHGLFLQH HFRQRP\ There are numerous fields of human activity each field is related with knowledge, information, behaviour patterns etc. each field has internally set objectives and some means of developing itself fields have traditions for judging what is valid and what is not valid science and technology are no more or less than human activity fields they are different and distinct but they do interact How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33 The peculiar nature of science Science is a collection of claims regarding the nature of things a static view These claims are documented and justified but they are not proven, final or eternal also: Science is the process, which collects, investigates and publishes those claims (a dynamic view) All scientific information is in documents journals, books, or other forms of publications this information is accessible for anybody (at least sooner or later) there is also a large and continuously growing and open supply of observations (data) just waiting to be analysed (like data archives from space probes and physics research facilities, meteorological data, data banks of numerous other organisations) Science is created and regulated by the science community How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33

6 The science community The science community decides what is valid and what not The science community is a unique formation it is completely open for every one on the earth all relevant information is public there are no priests no guards, no censorship and no formal membership there are no written rules but many unwritten ones So this is the ideal, and there are some practical hints you are more credible if you get a PhD select an efficient forum a respected journal or conference you may violate traditions but do it openly and explain why you do it be absolutely honest forgery kills a scientist respect and honour your colleagues and you will be respected How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33 The peculiar nature of technology Technology is NOT: applied science not science at all! But: technology utilises results from science applies scientific methods is a often an object of scientific research (like any human activity) technology is an art of doing technology is a pervasive element in modern society technology has strong social and cultural context (so that we have difficulties in seeing it ) How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33

7 A definition for technology (one of many): Technology is creative activity, which creates new forms and new information about those forms Technology is an inseparable part of everyday life (even the biology of man is sculpted by technology!!) Technology consists of: a. artefacts, b. procedures, c. information about application of a and b this information is encoded in documents, in individuals, and in culture, and it is embedded in technical artefacts How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33 Science and technology as processes,qirupdwlrq,qirupdwlrq 3XEOLF 6&,(1&( DUWLILFLDO REMHFW 3XEOLF 3ULYDWH 7(&+12/2*< DUWLILFLDO REMHFW 3ULYDWH,QIRUPDWLRQ,QIRUPDWLRQ, How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33

8 Difference in work processes Technology aims for a new artificial object or a new application science aims for new information Scientists read and write a lot engineers work with local information and local culture Scientist s world is open and global engineer s world restricted and local Regarding science about technology, involvement with private and restricted information possesses some problems These problems are overcome by disclosing some information from scientific papers: like the source of information, or exact application Examples: company names in a method study are not told; product names or details of a usability study are not given How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33 7KHVFLHQFH RIWHFKQRORJ\

9 Is there a science of technology? "Sciences of the artificial " (H. A. Simon 1981 Nobel prize in economy): there is no unified science of technology there should be one! it should integrate design science with the science explaining artefacts (also Karl Popper considers, that the artificial has a special character) Following Simon s reasoning, we can describe, what the science of technology does: it analyses, explains and models engineering and manufacturing processes it explains and predicts properties and behaviour of artificial objects it addresses interactions associated with manufacturing, adoption and utilisation of technical artefacts: from e.g. individual's,organisation s, community s, economy s and nature s viewpoints How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33 The grand traditions of scientific thinking 1. Aristotelean: reasoning and human intellect as the main source of information aims for final explanations: "why" accepts different viewpoints; holism typical application areas: social sciences, humanities: Europe, catholic culture 2. Galilean: interaction between theories and observations aims for causal relations: "how" reductionism; ultimate goal reduction to basic physics typical application areas: sciences and medicine; Scandinavia, USA; protestant culture Technology is a cross-over activity: it combines different methods How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33

10 Some common features of scientific method: Gradual refinement of the problem and solution (Hans Reichenbach) discovery (pre-hypothesis, methodological fumbling) justification (clarification of hypothesis; proof or support of hypothesis) Falsification (Karl Popper) even a large number of supporting observations cannot prove a hypothesis even a single negative observation will falsificate it (Goodman s paradox) Need of intuition there is no "meta-theory", which tells how to invent the hypothesis or how to find a proof for it Prediction (Hempel-Oppenheim model) a theory, which explains past phenomena or behaviour, should also be able to predict future ones How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33 Theories of truth Methods for proving or refuting hypothesis depend on the situation truth theories are universal! Proposed theories: Consensus common opinion among colleagues / community (beware: million flies ) Pragmatism if theory can be applied, it is valid (typical proof of a technical artefact) Coherence what seems to fit in the big picture Correspondence a theory is valid if there is a structural 1-1 correspondence between a model based on the theory, and its object How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33

11 Examples of technically oriented science Applying methods of natural sciences for example physics research on new algorithms (very close to mathematics) strength of materials (material physics) circuit theory (physics) telecommunications (mathematics, physics, information theory) theory of solid state components (physics, material physics, chemistry) Applying humanities and social sciences programming theory (mathematics, cognitive psychology, linguistics) usability research (cognitive psychology, experimental psychology, linguistics, ergonomy) innovation research (sociology, economy, psychology, ergonomy) design methods (cognitive psychology, mathematics, linguistics) How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33 7\SRORJ\RI VFLHQWLILFSDSHUV RIWHFKQRORJ\

12 Three main categories of scientific papers about technology: 1. Research about the nature (ontology) of technical artefacts ordinary engineering sciences (statics, dynamics, theory of strength, circuit theory, communication theory, electricity, chemistry.) modelled according to theories of nature, i.e physics 2. Research of design and manufacturing very rich family of possible approaches i.e according to psychology, sociology, linguistics, ergonomics.. 3. Research of interactions in use, utilisation or adoption of technology; research of impacts of technology even more approaches (psychology, cultural impacts, environmental impacts, economical effects...) How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33 Examples: category 1 papers (ontology) Characteristics of a RF solid state switching matrix solid state physics, circuit theory; validation with simulations and prototype measurements Algorithm for load balancing in telecommunication networks mathematics, formal logic, queuing theory; validation with analysis and/or simulation Printing of electronic components and wirings chemistry, material physics; validation by measurements of manufactured sample circuits Exception handling in the new programming language Q mathematics, formal logic; validation by analysis DUWLILFLDOH[DPSOH± FRQQHFWLRQVZLWKUHDOLW\DUHLQFLGHQWDO How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33

13 Examples: category 2 papers (design and manufacturing) Designing solid state RF components ergonomy, mathematics, cognitive psychology; validation with test designer groups Design tools for solid state RF component design economy, cognitive psychology, decision theory; creating a selection framework, validating with pilot users Printed components and wirings in new electronics chemistry, material physics, decision theory; analysis, experiments, interviews Residual errors and language Q exception handling mathematics, logic, linguistics, psychology; validation by comparing field error rate from implementations with different languages DUWLILFLDOH[DPSOH± FRQQHFWLRQVZLWKUHDOLW\DUHLQFLGHQWDO How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33 Examples: category 3 papers (use, adoption, impacts) RF component design in industry economy, decision making, circuit theory; large number of interviews of designers and managers Telecommunication network discontinuity impacts sociology, economy, decision theory; risk analysis, with interviews Monitoring a large telecommunication network psychology, economy; validation with in-depth interviews Post-lead chemical hazards of electronics chemistry, material physics; calculation, risk analysis Migration of exception handling sociology, mathematics, linguistics; analytical study with interviews DUWLILFLDOH[DPSOH± FRQQHFWLRQVZLWKUHDOLW\DUHLQFLGHQWDO How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33

14 '\QDPLFQDWXUH RIVFLHQFHDQGWHFKQRORJ\ Paradigm and crisis Thomas Kuhn: "Structure of scientific revolutions": Science is in "normal phase", or in "crisis" In the normal phase, scientific work supports the dominating paradigm In "crisis", the current paradigm is no longer satisfactory: sooner or later it will be replaced by a better paradigm There is a contradiction: "normal science" brings very little new information, but a paradigm breaking approach will be rejected Alternative and disputed conclusions from Kuhn s theory: 1. Finalism: science is evolving towards a perfect and faultless ideal 2. Relativism: one paradigm is no better than another: the only difference is in their application domains (example: Newton s physics is perfect for terrestrial kinematics, relativistic physics is mandatory in elementary particle resarch and astronomy) How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33

15 Innovation a technical paradigm? Definition of innovation (Joseph Schumpeter) Wide social, cultural or economical acceptance and utilisation of some invention (examples: agriculture; printing; radio..) ; not same as invention! An innovation is not the same as a new science paradigm Delayed innovations due lack of technology: mobile phone, hypertext and www sometimes (innovation starts years after its invention) Reverse: steam engine created a new scientific paradigm (thermodynamics) Other "reverse" examples: transistor, superconductivity Remember: technology is very conservative, innovations are rare Most designs are gradual evolution of an archetype Cross-over research is clearly needed For example: there is shortage of theory in software engineering! How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33 Are "exact" sciences really exact? Consider these examples (just for fun) Theory of music: Pythagorean scales and comma; enharmonic tones Celestial mechanics: solution of the three-body gravitation problem Kurt Gödel and incomplete theorems Model correspondence theories (Russel s paradox with meta-language hierarchies; Wittgenstein s language games) Quantum physics: e.g. teleportation of quantum state Theory of dynamic systems: dualism between interactive systems (process algebra) and algebraic systems; also, compare neural network and differential equation solutions Systems theory: consider "new" areas like emergence, chaos theory. THE WORLD IS NOT EXPLORED, SCIENCE IS NOT READY! How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33

16 5HIHUHQFHVDQGUHDGLQJ 1. Alanen, Pentti Luonnontiede, lääketiede, tieteenteoria. Helsinki: Gaudeamus. [An excellent and versatile presentation in Finnish. Medicine is comparable with technology actually it is technology of healing] 2. Alexander, Cristopher Notes on the synthesis of form. Cambridge, MA: Harward University Press. [A landmark paper about design, and its compatibility or incompatibility with human needs] 3. Allen, Thomas Managing the flow of technology: Technology transfer and the dissemination of technological information within the R&D Organisations. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press. [Famous study of sociology of engineering: what makes well performing engineering organisations?] 4. Eco, Umberto. Oppineisuuden osoittaminen. [Many practical advises; like selecting of subject and use of references. English translation not available] 5. Kuhn, Thomas The structure of scientific revolutions. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. [Dynamic nature of science; open to interpretations] 6. Latour, B Science in action. Open University Press, [Evolution of scientific information: from speculations, via frontier science, to everymans vocabulary] How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33

17 7. Niiniluoto, Ilkka Johdatus tieteenfilosofiaan: käsitteen- ja teorianmuodostus. Helsinki: Otava. [Clear and through presentation; in Finnish only] 8. Norman, D. A The Psychology of Everyday Things. New York, N.Y: Doubleday / Currency. [Horror true stories of bad technology; every designer should read this] 9. Pelz, D. C. & Andrews, F. M Scientists in organisations. Productive climates for research and development. John Wiley and Sons. [Landmark study of the difference between engineers and scientists work] 10. Schumpeter, Joseph A The Theory of Economic Development, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. [The classic of classics: evergreen description of the industrial age economy] 11. Simon, Herbert A The sciences of the artificial. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press. [Compact and serious eye opener] 12. Vincenti, Walter G What engineers know and how they know it. Analytical studies from aeronautical history. Baltimore - London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. [Illuminating in depth study exactly according the title ] How to Get a PhD. Infotech Oulu Graduate School / 33