DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF LANCASTER MSC IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS ANALYSING AND INTERPRETING DATA 2 PART 1 WEEK 9
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1 DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF LANCASTER MSC IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS ANALYSING AND INTERPRETING DATA 2 PART 1 WEEK 9 Analysis of covariance and multiple regression
2 So far in this course, we have looked at statistical models for continuous response (or dependent) variables). We have dealt with: Response variable continuous Explanatory variables 1 continuous Method Regression continuous 1 categorical continuous 2 categorical dummy variable regression / ANOVA table independent samples t-test Dummy variable regression/ ANOVA table. Test of interaction posible 2
3 We have used similar techniques in each of these cases. We have fitted a model with one or more explanatory variables, looked at their parameter estimates and used the t-values to determine whether terms are significant. We continue with continuous covariates, but now look at the situation where there is one categorical and one continuous variable. This type of model has a special name analysis of covariance. We will continue to develop the idea of an interaction term, introducing it into the model and testing its significance. We will, however, be using the same type of approach. 3
4 An example of ANCOVA analysis of covariance BLOCK DESIGNS A sample of 24 children was randomly chosen from the 5 th grade of a state primary school in Sydney. Each child was assigned to one of two experimental groups. The children had to complete four of the 3x3 squared designs in the block design subtest of the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). Children in the first group were told to start with a row of three blocks (the ROW group), and children in the second group were told to start with a corner of three blocks (the CORNER group). The total time to complete the task was then measured. Before the experiment began, the extent of each child s field dependence was measured by using the Embedded Figures Test (EFT), which measures the extent to which subjects can abstract the logical structure of a problem from its context. High scores correspond to high field dependence. 1 We therefore have one continuous explanatory variable EFT, and one categorical variable GROUP. An analysis with mixed types of independent variables is sometimes known as Analysis of Covaraince (ANCOVA) 1 The data is reported in Aitkin,M. Anderson, D., Francis, B. and Hinde, J.(1987) Statistical modelling in GLIM, Oxford University Press 4
5 Row group: time: eft: Corner group: time: eft: The data is stored in blockdesign.dat We read in the data to the dataframe block. block=read.table( blockdesign.dat, header=t) block$groupf=factor(block$group) We define two subsets of data a subset for the row group (group==0) and a subset for the corner group (group==1) row=block[block.group==0, ] corner=block[block.group==1, ] The object block can be thought of as a matrix we are selecting all rows for which group=1, and selecting all columns. names(row); summary(row) We can first plot the data. 5
6 plot(block$eft,block$time,type="n", xlab="eft score", ylab="time to complete") points(row$eft,row$time,pch=1,col=2) points(corner$eft,corner$time,pch=2,col=4) legend(20, 750, c("row group","corner group"), pch=c(1,2), col=c(2,4)) time to complete row group corner group We can see that there appears to be a strong relationship between TIME and EFT, and perhaps the corner group is taking less time. We explore this using statistical modelling. We can consider a number of different models. EFT score 6
7 If we fit a model with no explanatory variables, then we have a null model this says that there is no relationship between the time taken and either EFT or the experimental GROUP. m1=lm(block$time~1) anova(m1) Analysis of Variance Table Response: block$time Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F) Residuals > summary(m1) Coefficients: Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(> t ) (Intercept) e-13 *** The model is ESTIMATED TIME=384.3 The t-test on the estimate of the intercept is simply indicating whether there is evidence that the intercept estimate is different from zero. 7
8 lines(block$eft, m1$fitted.values) title("null model - mean only") null model - mean only time to complete row group corner group Sums of squares = Degrees of freedom = EFT score 8
9 We can then add either EFT or GROUP as explanatory variables. Suppose we add EFT first of all. The model is then EFT there is no group effect, but there is a linear relationship between TIME and EFT. m2=lm(time~ eft, data=block) anova(m2) Response: time Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F) eft ** Residuals > summary(m2) Coefficients: Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(> t ) (Intercept) e-06 *** eft ** The model now becomes ESTIMATED TIME= EFT Thus, for every unit increase of EFT, the TIME to complete the task increases by 2 seconds. Under this mode, the experimental group makes no difference. 9
10 repeating earlier graphics commands, then lines(block$eft, m2$fitted.values) title("model: EFT") model: EFT time to complete row group corner group SS= df= EFT score 10
11 We can then add in the group effect. This main effects model is the following model: TIME= B0 +B1 EFT+B2 GROUP If GROUP is defined to be GROUP=0 (Row group) GROUP=1 (Corner group) then this model becomes: TIME=B0+ B1 EFT (Row group) TIME=B0+B2 + B1 EFT (Corner group) The estimate of the group effect B2 is simply the difference between the fitted line for the row group and the fitted line for the corner group. m3=lm(time~ eft+groupf, data=block) anova(m3) Response: time Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F) eft ** groupf Residuals
12 summary(m3) Coefficients: Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(> t ) (Intercept) e-06 *** eft ** groupf The estimate of the GROUP effect is the corner group is estimated to be performing over 44 seconds faster than the row group. However, the GROUP effect is not significant. The slope of the two lines are the same. The estimates are ESTIMATED TIME = EFT (Row group) = EFT (Corner group) 12
13 repeating earlier graphics commands, then lines( row$eft,m3$fitted.values[block$groupf==0],col=2, lty=1) lines(corner$eft,m3$fitted.values[block$groupf==1],col=4, lty=2) title("model: eft+group") SS= df=21 The fitted lines of this model are parallel. However, the slope in the row group might be different from the slope of the corner group. 13
14 As with the 2-way ANOVA model last week, this model is known as an interaction model. We want to specify an interaction between groupf and eft- this is saying that the effect of groupf depends on the level of eft. This is a two-way interaction- an interaction between two terms in the model. More complex interaction terms can be fitted. We fit the model using m4=lm(time~ eft+groupf+eft:groupf, data=block) anova(m4) Response: time Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F) eft ** groupf eft:groupf Residuals
15 summary(m4) Coefficients: Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(> t ) (Intercept) ** eft ** groupf eft:groupf We now see the fitted model is ESTIMATED TIME = EFT (Row group) = EFT (Corner group) The slope of the corner group regression line is estimated to be the group also has a higher intercept. The regression lines show an increasing difference between the estimated times as EFT increases. However, this difference is not statistically significant. We display the plot, as before 15
16 lines( row$eft,m4$fitted.values[block$groupf==0],col=2, lty=1) lines(corner$eft,m4$fitted.values[block$groupf==1],col=4, lty=2) title("model: eft+group+eft:group") model: eft+group+eft:group time to complete row group corner group SS= df= EFT score 16
17 Model simplification There are two strategies. AIC method. We have already seen this method. We can construct a table of AIC values for each model and choose the model with the lowest value. model AIC value eft eft+group eft+group+eft:group From this analysis we choose the model eft as being the best. However, the interaction model has an AIC value which is very close to the minimum and might be an alternative. 17
18 Classic backward elimination: When we examine the significance level of the interaction term, we find that the difference in slopes of is not statistically significant from zero (p=0.13). We reject this model in favour of the main effects model already discussed. The main effects model can also be simplified as there is no evidence that the group effect is significantly different from zero (p=0.33). Our final model is one where there is no group difference and with eft the only single predictor of time. In this example, the two methods give the same result. In general, the AIC method is less parsimonious, and more likely to retain terms in the model. Backward elimination at the 5% level (p=0.05) will be more likely to exclude terms and is a more conservative method. 18
19 Constructing an Analysis of Variance table. We can construct an analysis of variance table by examining the Sums of Squares given for each model, and differencing them.. We start at the most complex model, and use the sums of squares form this model as our estimate of residual variation. Thus the residual sums of squares is on 20 df. We now work backwards, removing the most complex terms first.. So the sums of squares due to the interaction is on degrees of freedom. Sums of squares due to SS df SS df EFT GROUP given EFT INTERACTION Sum of Squares df Mean F-value p-value square EFT GROUP given EFT Interaction Residual
20 Multiple linear regression In simple linear regression, we attempt to explain the dependent variable in terms of an intercept and a single independent variable which is continuous. Multiple linear regression extends these techniques to allow for several independent continuous variables. Least squares is again used to determine the unstandardised coefficients (the Bs) in the more general equation: Dependent = Intercept + B1 x Independent + B2 x Independent +... Variable (or B0) Variable 1 Variable 2 20
21 Example: professor s salary data University students often complain that universities reward professors for research but not for teaching, and argue that professors react to this situation by devoting more time and energy to research publications and less time and energy to classroom activities. Professors counter that research and teaching go hand in hand; more research makes better teachers. A US student organization decided to investigate part of the issue. They randomly selected 50 psychology professors in their area. The students recorded the salaries of the professors, their average teaching evaluations, and the total number of articles published in their careers. salary salary (in 1000$) evalulation average teaching evaluation (10 point scale) articles number of articles published All variables can be treated as continuous ( although there is an argument for categorising evaluation what is it?) We therefore use multiple regression to investigate the relationship between SALARY, teaching quality and research output. 21
22 We look at the correlation between the three variables: profs=read.table( profs.dat,header=t) cor(profs) salary evaluation articles salary evaluation articles There is a strong correlation between every pair of variables. Research is associated with good teaching, and both are correlated with salaries. We could plot each variable against each other to obtain a graphical picture of each relationship pair. We fit a linear model to investigate further. m1=lm(salary~evaluation+articles,data=profs) summary(lm) 22
23 Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(> t ) (Intercept) e-07 *** evaluation articles e-10 *** We look at the first part of the output. This is familiar. We see that the variable evaluation (once articles is in the model) is not significant. However the variable articles is significant. This suggests that we can remove articles from the model. The number of articles appears to determine salary, but the teaching evaluation score does not provide an additional component. Salary is not determined by teaching quality. We look to exclude evaluation from the model But first we look at the other part of the output. 23
24 Residual standard error: on 47 degrees of freedom Multiple R-Squared: , Adjusted R-squared: F-statistic: 60.7 on 2 and 47 DF, p-value: 9.453e-14 The Multiple R-squared is a measure of the proportion of variance explained by the model. We can find from anova calculations that the sums of squares from the null ( constant mean) model is sums of squares from the articles+evaluation model is the proportion of variance explained is 1 (2308.8/8272.0) = The adjusted R-squared provides an unbiased estimate of what the proportion of variance explained might be in the population data. 24
25 > m2=lm(salary~articles,data=profs) > summary(m2) Coefficients: Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(> t ) (Intercept) < 2e-16 *** articles e-15 *** Multiple R-Squared: , Adjusted R-squared: The estimate for articles remains very close to the value in the previous output. The multiple R-squared and adjusted r-squared are close to the previous values. Our final model is estimated salary = x (numberof articles) How well does this model fit? 25
26 plot(profs$articles, profs$salary, xlab="number of articles", ylab="salary") lines(profs$articles, m2$fitted.values) salary The straight line seems to fit the data well, and the observed points are well scattered around the line. The next lecture wil look at diagnostics for regression models and how to test the assumptions of the linear model more carefully. The model says that every increase in one published article is associated with a estimated salary increase of $1,112 dollars number of articles 26
27 Assumptions of linear regression. a) effects are linear each covariate has a linear rather than a non-linear relationship to the dependent variable. b) The residuals have a Normal distribution. c) There is constant variance. The variance does not depend on the covariates or on the mean. d) The observations are independent. Important this is part of the design. In the experiment above, the observations would not be independent if one child copied from another. 27
28 Using SPSS In SPSS, we use the SPSS Linear Regression procedure in ENTER mode (all the independent variables are entered into the model) with SALARY as the Dependent Variable and EVALUATI and ARTICLES as Independent Variables, giving the following (edited) summary results: Model 1 Model Summary Adjusted Std. Error of R R Square R Square the Estimate.849 a a. Predictors: (Constant), articles, evaluati Model 1 (Constant) evaluati articles a. Dependent Variable: salary Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients a Standardized Coefficients B Std. Error Beta t Sig
29 3D plots A simple 3D scatterplot can be carried out by library(lattice) cloud($profs$salary~profs$articles+profs$evaluation) More complex interactive plots can be carried out if you have the ability to install software. 29
30 Different types of multiple regression The preceding example showed an example of regression for exploration and prediction. We wanted to explore the data set to build a suitable statistical model for salary from the teaching evaluation and research publications. This is akin to separating out the structure of the data from the noise. The regression analysis tells us which independent (or predictor) variables are not needed for the structure- and can therefore be considered as part of the noise. However, another reason to carry out multiple regression is to CONTROL for the effect of other variables. We may be interested in the association between levels of a hormone and an aggression score. However, our data is observational, not experimental. Observational data means that we survey people and then measuring both the hormone level and the aggression score. Thus we cannot randomly assign individuals to low or high hormone levels our data will be unbalanced and will depend on who we survey. Additionally, we might imagine that other variables affect aggression score in particular age and gender. We need to control for the effect of these variables in our analysis. 30
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