Evaluation of Alternatives for the Lake Okeechobee Sediment Management Feasibility Study C-11650

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1 Evaluation of Alternatives for the Lake Okeechobee Sediment Management Feasibility Study C April 2003

2 R EPORT Evaluation of Alternatives Lake Okeechobee Sediment Management Feasibility Study C South Florida Water Management District West Palm Beach, Florida April 2003

3 Table of Contents ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY... ES-1 1. INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND PURPOSE OF THE FEASIBILITY STUDY REGULATORY DRIVERS FEASIBILITY STUDY PROCESS FOR MORE INFORMATION APPROACH TO EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES OVERALL APPROACH Modeling Public and Interagency Outreach Data Collection and Review Sediment Characterization Internal Loading Evaluation Socioeconomic Evaluation Case Study Reviews Cost Estimating EVALUATION PROCESS ALTERNATIVE 1 NO IN-LAKE ACTION DETAILED DESCRIPTION NO IN-LAKE ACTION EVALUATION METHOD Pelagic (Open-water) Zone Effects on the Near-Shore Region UNCERTAINTY IMPACTS AND ISSUES RESULTS OF EVALUATION NO IN-LAKE ACTION Pelagic Zone Near-Shore Region Goal 1: Maximize Water Quality Improvements PM 1A: Minimize Time to Achieve Phosphorus Target PM 1B: Maximize Reductions in Water Column Phosphorus Concentrations PM 1C: Maximize TSS Reductions in the Short Term and the Long Term PM 1D: Minimize Algal Blooms PM 1E: Minimize Exceedances of Water Quality Standards in the Short Term and the Long Term PM 1F: Minimize Downstream Impacts Goal 2: Maximize Engineering Feasibility and Implementability Goal 3: Maximize Cost-Effectiveness PM 3A: Minimize Construction Costs PM 3B: Minimize Operation and Maintenance Costs PM 3C: Maximize Benefits (Material Reuse) Goal 4: Maximize Environmental Benefits PM 4A: Maximize Benefits to Wetland Vegetation in Littoral Zone PM 4B: Maximize Benefits to SAV PM 4C: Maximize Benefits to Fish and Aquatic Invertebrate Communities PM 4D: Minimize Negative Impacts to the Manatee PM 4E: Minimize Negative Impacts to the Alligator PM 4F: Minimize Negative Impacts to the Okeechobee Gourd PM 4G: Minimize Negative Impacts to the Snail Kite and Wading Birds Goal 5: Maximize Socioeconomic Benefits /10/2003 engineers & scientists TOC-1

4 PM 5A: Maximize Regional Socioeconomic Benefits PM 5B: Minimize Environmental/Social Inequities PM 5C: Maximize Community Acceptance PM 5D: No Impacts on Water Supply or Lake Operations ALTERNATIVE 2 CHEMICAL TREATMENT DETAILED DESCRIPTION CHEMICAL TREATMENT Methodology (Dose, Application, and Equipment) Shipment and Transport of Materials to the Site Land-use Needs (Staging of Equipment and Materials, and Production Facility) Duration of Alternative (Staging, Implementation, Post-Implementation) Staging Implementation Post-Implementation Data Needs Summary EVALUATION METHOD ILPM Model Simulations LOWQM Simulations UNCERTAINTY IMPACTS AND ISSUES RESULTS OF EVALUATION CHEMICAL TREATMENT Goal 1: Maximize Water Quality Improvements PM 1A: Minimize Time to Achieve Phosphorus Target PM 1B: Maximize Reductions in Water Column Phosphorus Concentrations PM 1C: Maximize TSS Reductions in the Short Term and Long Term PM 1D: Minimize Algal Blooms PM 1E: Minimize Exceedances of Water Quality Standards in the Short Term and Long Term PM 1F: Minimize Downstream Impacts Goal 2: Maximize Engineering Feasibility and Implementability PM 2A: Maximize Technical Reliability PM 2B: Maximize Technical Scalability PM 2C: Maximize Equipment and Material Availability PM 2D: Maximize Permanence PM 2E: Minimize On-Shore Land Use Needs and Conflicts Satisfy Permitting Requirements Goal 3: Maximize Cost Effectiveness PM 3A: Minimize Construction Costs PM 3B: Minimize Operation and Maintenance Costs PM 3C: Maximize Benefits (Material Reuse) Goal 4: Maximize Environmental Benefits PM 4A: Maximize Benefits to Wetland Vegetation in Littoral Zone PM 4B: Maximize Benefits to Submerged Aquatic Vegetation PM 4C: Maximize Benefits to Fish and Aquatic Invertebrate Communities PM 4D: Minimize Negative Impacts to the Manatee PM 4E: Minimize Negative Impacts to the Alligator PM 4F: Minimize Negative Impacts to the Okeechobee Gourd PM 4G: Minimize Negative Impacts to the Snail Kite and Wading Birds Goal 5: Maximize Socioeconomic Benefits PM 5A: Maximize Regional Socioeconomic Benefits PM 5B: Minimize Environmental/Social Inequities PM 5C: Maximize Community Acceptance PM 5D: No Impacts on Water Supply or Lake Operations ALTERNATIVE 3 DREDGING WITH CONFINED DISPOSAL FACILITY FINAL ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT DETAILED DESCRIPTION DREDGING WITH CONFINED DISPOSAL FACILITY (CDF) General Assumptions for Dredging with CDF Alternatives Target Area /10/2003 engineers & scientists TOC-2

5 Sediment Characterization Dredging Approach Dredged Material Transportation CDF Construction Water Treatment Dredging Timeframe Overall Timeframe Land-Use Needs Resources Fugitive Short-Term Phosphorus and Solids Release During Dredging Effectiveness Modeling Uncertainty Impacts and Issues Model Simulations for Dredged Material Management Options Input File Changes Post-Processing Results RESULTS OF EVALUATION DREDGING Goal 1: Maximize Water-Quality Improvements PM 1A: Minimize Time to Achieve Phosphorus Target PM 1B: Maximize Reductions in Water-Column Phosphorus Concentrations PM 1C: Maximize Total Suspended Solids (TSS) Reductions in the Short Term and the Long Term PM 1D: Minimize Algal Blooms PM 1E: Minimize Exceedances of Water Quality Standards in the Short Term and the Long Term PM 1F: Minimize Downstream Impacts Goal 2: Maximize Engineering Feasibility and Implementability PM 2A: Maximize Technical Reliability PM 2B: Maximize Technical Scalability PM 2C: Maximize Equipment and Material Availability PM 2D: Maximize Permanence PM 2E: Minimize On-Shore Land-Use Needs and Conflicts PM 2F: Satisfy Permitting Requirements Goal 3: Maximize Cost-Effectiveness PM 3A: Minimize Construction Costs PM 3B: Minimize Operation and Maintenance Costs PM 3C: Maximize Benefits (Material Reuse) Goal 4: Maximize Environmental Benefits PM 4A: Maximize Benefits to Wetland Vegetation in Littoral Zone PM 4B: Maximize Benefits to Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV) PM 4C: Maximize Benefits to Fish and Aquatic Invertebrate Communities PM 4D: Minimize Negative Impacts to the Manatee PM 4E: Minimize Negative Impacts to the Alligator PM 4F: Minimize Negative Impacts to the Okeechobee Gourd PM 4G: Minimize Negative Impacts to the Snail Kite and Wading Birds Goal 5: Maximize Socioeconomic Benefits PM 5A: Maximize Regional Socioeconomic Benefits PM 5B: Minimize Environmental/Social Inequities PM 5C: Maximize Community Acceptance PM 5D: No Impacts on Water Supply or Lake Operations SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS SUMMARY RECOMMENDATIONS REFERENCES /10/2003 engineers & scientists TOC-3

6 Tables 3-1 Nutrient and TSS Concentrations in LOWQM No In-Lake Action Alternative Scenario 3-2 Loading Rates in Metric Tonnes per Year 3-3 Summary of Initial Conditions for Key Parameters Used in the LOWQM Model 3-4 Sediment Bulk Density for Different Sediment Types 4-1 Conceptual Cost Estimate Alternative 2 Chemical Treatment Summary Estimate 5-1 Properties of Mud Zone Sediment 5-2 Average Daily and Maximum Daily TSS Concentrations 5-3 Conceptual Cost Estimate Alternative 3A Hydraulic Dredging to Two Island CDFs Summary Estimate 5-4 Conceptual Cost Estimate Alternative 3B Hydraulic Dredging to Shoreline CDF Summary Estimate 5-5 Conceptual Cost Estimate Alternative 3C Hydraulic Dredging to Upland CDF Summary Estimate 6-1 Summary of Performance Measure Scores for No In-Lake Action, Chemical Treatment, and Dredging Alternatives Figures 1-1 Lake Okeechobee and Surrounding Areas 1-2 Lake Okeechobee Site Map 1-3 Total Phosphorus Content in Surficial Sediments Habitat Regions & Spatial Distribution of Sediment Types 2-1 Phosphorus Concentration by Depth in Lake Okeechobee Mud Layer 2-2 Simplified Diagram Illustrating Major Processes and Transport Pathways Involved in Internal Loading of Phosphorus in Shallow Lakes 3-1 Projected Decline in Input TP No In-Lake Action 3-2 Annual Average Lake Stage Assumed in Model Simulations 3-3 Predicted Annual Frequency of Algal Bloom Events 3-4 Short-Term Variations in TSS and SAV 3-5 Particulate Phosphorus vs. TSS for Pelagic Stations 1972 to Estimated Contribution of Algal and Consolidated Resuspension to Particulate P 3-7 Predicted TP Concentrations for Long-Term Simulations Model Comparison 3-8 Lake TP Concentrations as a Function of Inflow TP Concentrations Model Comparison 3-9 Response Time of Lakewater TP Concentrations to Reduction in Inflow TP Concentrations 3-10 Sensitivity Analysis Results and Effect of Uncertainty in Exchange Depth (z) 3-11 Predicted Long-Term TP Dynamics ILPM Results No In-Lake Action Alternative 3-12 Predicted Long-Term TP Dynamics LOWQM Results No In-Lake Action Alternative 3-13 Time Series Comparison ILPM vs. LOWQM No In-Lake Action Alternative 3-14 Average Particulate P in Near-Shore Region from Sediment Resuspension (LOHTM) 4-1 Alum Binding Coefficient as a Function of Surface Inflow TP Concentration 4-2 Effective Alum Coefficient in ILPM Model 4-3 ILPM Comparison No In-Lake Action vs. Chemical Treatment 4-4 LOWQM Comparison No In-Lake Action vs. Chemical Treatment 4-5 Predicted TP Concentrations for Chemical Treatment ILPM vs. LOWQM 4-6 TP Concentration Comparison No Treatment, Single Treatment, Multiple Treatments 4-7 Annual Algal Bloom Frequency No In-Lake Action vs. Chemical Treatment (ILPM) 4-8 Annual Algal Bloom Frequency No In-Lake Action vs. Chemical Treatment (LOWQM) 4-9 Annual Algal Bloom Frequency Chemical Treatment (ILPM vs. LOWQM) 4-10 Cumulative Frequency Distribution Algal Bloom Probability (ILPM) 4-11 Cumulative Frequency Distribution Algal Bloom Probability (LOWQM) 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists TOC-4

7 4-12 Cumulative Frequency Distribution Algal Bloom Probability (ILPM vs. LOWQM) 5-1 Alternative 3A 5-2 Alternative 3B 5-3 Alternative 3C 5-4 Sediment Removal Schedule 5-5 ILPM Predicted TP Concentrations Dredging vs. No In-Lake Action 5-6 LOWQM Predicted TP Concentrations Dredging vs. No In-Lake Action 5-7 ILPM Uncertainty in Sediment TP Concentrations Dredging Scenario 5-8 ILPM Uncertainty in Lakewater TP Concentrations Dredging Scenario 5-9 LOWQM and ILPM Comparison Dredging Alternative 5-10 ILPM Predicted TP Concentration in Lakewater 5-11 ILPM Predicted Lakewater TP Dredging vs. No Dredging 5-12 Predicted TSS Concentrations Three Dredging Scenarios 5-13 Comparison of TP Concentrations in Residual Sediment 5-14 ILPM Comparison of TP in Pelagic and Near-Shore Zones 5-15 LOWQM Comparison of TP in Pelagic and Near-Shore Zones 5-16 Near-Shore TSS Comparison 5-17 Near-Shore Particulate P Comparison No In-Lake Action vs. Dredging 5-18 SAV Biomass Comparison No In-Lake Action vs. Dredging 5-19 ILPM Algal Bloom Frequency Comparison No In-Lake Action vs. Dredging 5-20 LOWQM Algal Bloom Frequency Comparison No In-Lake Action vs. Dredging 5-21 TN:TP Comparison No In-Lake Action vs. Dredging 5-22 Cumulative Frequency Distribution of Algal Bloom Occurrence in Near-Shore Zone No In-Lake Action vs. Dredging 6-1 Relative Comparison of Alternative Performance 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists TOC-5

8 Acronym and Abbreviation List 137 Cs Cesium Am Americium-241 Al aluminum Al(OH)3 aluminum hydroxide Al-P aluminum-bound phosphorus alum aluminum sulfate BBL Blasland, Bouck & Lee, Inc. BMP Best Management Practice CDF confined disposal facility CERP Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Program cm centimeters cm 3 cubic centimeters CTLs Cleanup Target Levels cy cubic yards District South Florida Water Management District DOR Department of Revenue e.g. (lat.) exempli gratia for example EA EA Engineering, Science, & Technology, Inc. EFDC Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code EIS Environmental Impact Statement ERP Joint Environmental Resource Permit et al. (lat.) et alia and others FAC Florida Administrative Code FDACS Florida Department of Agricultural and Consumer Services FDEP Florida Department of Environmental Protection FS Feasibility Study FWC Florida Fish and Freshwater Conservation Commission Fe iron ft feet g grams g/cm 3 grams per cubic centimeter g/m 2 grams per square meter g/m 3 grams per cubic meter g/ml grams per milliliter gal gallons GIS Geographic Information Systems gpd gallons per day ha hectares i.e. (lat.) id est that is IFAS Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences ILPM Internal Loading Phosphorus Model in. inches in toto (lat.) completely 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists TOC-6

9 k e light extinction coefficient kg kilograms km kilometers km 2 square kilometers L/kg liters per kilogram lbs pounds LEC Lower East Coast LOHTM Lake Okeechobee 3-D Hydrodynamic Transport Model LOOP Lake Okeechobee Operating Permit LORSS Lake Okeechobee Regulation Schedule Study LOWQM Lake Okeechobee Water Quality Model m meters m 2 square meters m 3 cubic meters m 3 /day cubic meters per day m 3 /hr cubic meters per hour m 3 /min cubic meters per minute mg milligrams mgd million gallons per day mg/g milligrams per gram mg/kg milligrams per kilograms mg/l milligrams per liter mg/m 2 - day milligrams per square meter per day mg/m 2 - year milligrams per square meter per day mg P/g milligrams of phosphorus per gram mg P/kg milligrams of phosphorus per kilogram mg P/L milligrams of phosphorus per liter mg P/m 2 milligrams of phosphorus per square meter mg P/yr milligrams of phosphorus per gram mi miles mi 2 square miles mm millimeters N/m 2 Newtons per square meter N 2 Nitrogen NH 3 Ammonia - NO 3 Nitrate NAIP non-apatite inorganic phosphorus NGVD National Geodetic Vertical Datum + NH 4 Ammonium NPV net present value NRPA Natural Resources Protective Association O&M Operations & Maintenance OM&M Operation, Maintenance, and Monitoring P phosphorus PM Performance Measure 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists TOC-7

10 PEC probable effects concentration ppm parts per million RI/FS Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study SAV submerged aquatic vegetation SFWMD South Florida Water Management District Si silica SIC Standard Industrial Classification SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences SRP soluble reactive phosphorus STA stormwater treatment areas SWAN Simulating WAves Near-shore SWIM Surface Water Improvement and Management TMDL Total Maximum Daily Load TN total nitrogen TP total phosphorus TN:TP ratio of total nitrogen to total phosphorus TR tax revenue TSS total suspended solids µg P/L micrograms of phosphorus per liter µg/l micrograms per liter USACE United States Army Corps of Engineers USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency USFWS United States Fish and Wildlife Service viz. (lat.) videlicet namely w/w wet weight y 2 square yards 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists TOC-8

11 Executive Summary This Lake Okeechobee Sediment Management Feasibility Study, prepared by Blasland, Bouck & Lee, Inc. (BBL), Tetra-Tech, Inc., Environmental Quality Inc., and Haysmar, Inc., presents the results of a three-year scientific and engineering evaluation of management options designed to address elevated levels of phosphorus in the mud sediments of Lake Okeechobee. Public and interagency outreach efforts were successful in gathering critical input that shaped each phase of this study. Although it is recognized that excessive inputs of phosphorus from external sources are the primary driver of high concentrations of phosphorus in lakes, the occurrence of high concentrations of phosphorus in the water column of Lake Okeechobee is believed to be exacerbated by internal sources, namely high levels of phosphorus in the sediments. This is because Lake Okeechobee is quite broad and shallow, which creates an environment where bottom sediments enriched in phosphorus can be physically resuspended into the water column by wind-induced waves. Once introduced into the water column, phosphorus that is loosely bound to sediment particles or dissolved in the sediment porewater can become available to phytoplankton, stimulating their growth. Internal phosphorus loading also occurs as a result of natural chemical and biological processes. Together, these internal releases of phosphorus to the water column are hypothesized to contribute to increased frequency of blue-green algae blooms and decreased water quality in the lake. Moreover, some believe that if internal loading is not addressed, the lake may not respond to reductions in external phosphorus inputs (Steinman et al., 1999), or the response may be significantly delayed. This report addresses the following basic questions: What will happen to the lake if no active in-lake measures are taken to address phosphorus in the sediments? How long will it take the lake to recover if only reductions in external loads are addressed? Of the feasible alternatives, which is the most effective for addressing phosphorus loading in the lake? How long will the alternative take to implement? How much will the alternative cost? 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists ES-1

12 What are the potential impacts and benefits (environmental, economic, other) of the alternative? Thirty-six potential sediment management options with the potential to address internal loading were initially screened on the basis of effectiveness, implementability, risk, reliability, and applicability to Lake Okeechobee (BBL, 2001b). Following the screening process, the alternatives listed below were retained for full-scale evaluation: No In-Lake Action; Chemical Treatment Using Aluminum Sulfate (alum) and Sodium Aluminate; and Dredging. Each alternative listed above is evaluated in this Feasibility Study with respect to the five goals established for the project (BBL, 2001a): Maximize water quality improvements; Maximize engineering feasibility and implementability; Maximize cost effectiveness; Maximize environmental benefits; and Maximize socioeconomic benefits. Each alternative was evaluated against 26 clearly defined performance measures related to the five primary project goals (see Section 2). The evaluation incorporated water quality modeling results, along with engineering evaluations, detailed cost estimates, interviews, case study reviews, socioeconomic analyses, and public and interagency input. Uncertainties related to the findings presented in this Feasibility Study are associated with the expectation that the current Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) established for Lake Okeechobee by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP, 2000) can be achieved by Per the direction of the South Florida Water Management District (District), all analyses are based on the assumption that external phosphorus loads will be reduced to the TMDL of 140 metric tons by If achievement of the TMDL goal is delayed, the results predicted in the modeling analyses presented 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists ES-2

13 in this FS would be pushed back by an equivalent time period (i.e., if the TMDL target is not achieved until 2025, all timeframes discussed in items 1 through 3 below would be delayed by 10 years). Additional alternative specific uncertainties are discussed in Sections 3, 4, and 5. The results of this Feasibility Study are briefly summarized as follows: 1) No In-Lake Action assumes that the external loading rate of phosphorus (P) will be reduced to a total load of 140 metric tons per year by 2015 in accordance with the TMDL established for the lake. No In-Lake Action is decidedly not a do nothing approach. While there are no active in-lake sediment management activities, this alternative incorporates extensive lake and watershed monitoring efforts and aggressive watershed management practices to achieve restoration goals for Lake Okeechobee. For the purpose of modeling, external loads were converted to concentrations. The phosphorus concentration and external loading reduction schedule assumed in the modeling analysis (described in Section 3) consists of three parts: Baseline conditions start in 2000 with an initial load that reflects the average load for the previous 10 years. The external total phosphorus (TP) load is assumed to decline linearly by 25% between 2000 and This reduction is attributed to the implementation of best management practices (BMPs) in the watershed. Between 2010 and 2015, the external load is assumed to decline further to the TMDL goal, also as a result of watershed management. Modeling results for the No In-Lake Action scenario indicate a 25% decrease in the annual frequency of algal blooms (from a current annual likelihood of approximately 20%), to below a 15% annual probability of a bloom occurrence by 2015 and a decrease to below 10% by Steady-state lake recovery conditions would be achieved around 2063, approximately 35 years from the point that external loads are reduced to the inflow load of 140 metric tons (see Section 3). 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists ES-3

14 2) Chemical Treatment, using alum and sodium aluminate, is estimated at a cost of approximately $493 million. Chemical treatment would start about year 2012 and would take 3 years to complete. Modeling results and technical evaluations indicate that chemical treatment would effectively inactivate the upper 10 centimeters of phosphorus in existing sediment and much of the new phosphorus introduced into the sediments for about 15 years. With chemical treatment, the target of an annual likelihood of algal bloom occurrence of 10% (or less) in the near-shore region is achieved approximately 15 years earlier than predicted for the No In-Lake Action alternative. Chemical treatment also reduces the time to reach the in-lake TP goal compared to the No In- Lake Action alternative. Under the No In-Lake Action scenario, the Internal Loading Phosphorus Model (ILPM) and Lake Okeechobee Water Quality Model (LOWQM) predict Lake Okeechobee will achieve 90% of the in-lake target concentration of 40 micrograms per liter (µg/l) by approximately years 2033 and 2042, respectively. If alum were applied to the lake according to the protocols of the chemical treatment alternative, both models predict that Lake Okeechobee would show improvements quite rapidly. Specifically, reductions in pelagic TP concentrations reach 90% of the predicted steady state recovery concentration by 2015, which is approximately 20 to 30 years earlier than the No In-Lake Action alternative. Beyond 15 years, the concurrent reductions in external loads are primarily responsible for improvements in water quality. If reductions in external loads are delayed or are not achieved, chemical treatments would have to be repeated about every 15 years to maintain the steady state recovery conditions (see Section 4). 3) Dredging, using hydraulic dredges, is estimated at a cost of approximately $3 billion. Dredging would start about 2015 and would take 15 years to complete. The technical evaluations and water quality modeling completed for this study indicate that dredging can never remove all the targeted sediment and the layer left behind regardless of its thickness would continue to release phosphorus into the water column. Hence, this alternative shows limited or no effectiveness (see Section 5). 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists ES-4

15 1. Introduction This Evaluation of Alternatives report represents the cornerstone of the three-year Lake Okeechobee Sediment Management Feasibility Study (FS). The study, commissioned by the South Florida Water Management District (the District) in 2000, was designed to analyze possible approaches to reduce internal phosphorus loading in Lake Okeechobee and included both a comprehensive technical assessment and an extensive public and interagency outreach effort. The primary component of the outreach effort was a series of four public meetings, but also included distribution of fact sheets to more than 800 interested individuals, development of a project website, establishment of a document repository, placement of meeting notices in local newspapers, and personal contact with key representatives of the public and government agencies. The public outreach effort was critical to the progress of the study, and yielded valuable input and insight that was considered and incorporated throughout the three-year process. This report is the culmination of the technical evaluation. It satisfies both the overall charge of the study and the regulatory requirements (described in Section 1.3), and provides the District with thorough, defensible quantitative and qualitative information that can be used to develop a plan for the future of Lake Okeechobee. 1.1 Background Lake Okeechobee, the second largest freshwater lake wholly within the continental United States, is the liquid heart of south Florida. Located at the center of the Kissimmee-Okeechobee-Everglades aquatic ecosystem, this expansive (nearly 730 square miles [mi 2 ]), relatively shallow (average current depth of just 9 feet [ft]) water body is fed primarily by the Kissimmee River and serves as the headwaters to the Caloosahatchee River, several canals, and the Everglades (Figures 1-1 and 1-2). The lake s shores touch five counties, and the drainage basin covers more than 4,600 mi 2. The lake typically contains more than 1 trillion gallons of water and plays a central role in regional water storage and supply for urban drinking water (Florida Administrative Code [FAC] Rule ), 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists 1-1

16 irrigation of agricultural lands, and flood control. Lake Okeechobee is also ecologically important to the region it is a major water source to the Everglades and provides critical habitat for fish, birds, and other wildlife, including the federally endangered Everglades snail kite (Aumen and Gray, 1995). Conditions in Lake Okeechobee have changed dramatically over the last century, largely as a result of external loading nutrient inputs, in particular phosphorus, to the ecosystem from agriculture and other human activities in the watershed (Havens et al., 1996). The legacy of decades of high external loads of phosphorus to the lake is sediment with elevated concentrations of phosphorus (Figure 1-3), primarily in the pelagic zone. The higher concentrations of phosphorus are primarily in the pelagic mud zone in the center of the lake. The deeper sediments in the pelagic zone contain an estimated 51,600 metric tons (~56,760 tons) of phosphorus (see Figure 1-4 for spatial distribution of sediment types and habitat regions of the lake). This phosphorus-laden sediment may be frequently resuspended in the water column by wind and waves (Maceina and Soballe, 1990), and this internal loading has been reported to contribute phosphorus to the lake s water as a rate approximately equal to the contribution from external loading (Moore et al., 1998). It has been theorized that, if this high rate of internal loading is not addressed, the lake may not respond to reductions in external phosphorus inputs (Steinman et al., 1999), or the response may be significantly delayed. Concerns have been raised that, unless addressed in some way, the relative contribution of this internal source may even increase as the external sources are mitigated (Moss et al., 1999). 1.2 Purpose of the Feasibility Study The purpose of the Lake Okeechobee Sediment Management Feasibility Study is to evaluate a base case of No In-Lake Action against a variety of active sediment management options to address the potential internal phosphorus loading issue, bearing in mind the overall objective of substantially reducing in-lake phosphorus concentrations, improving water quality and water clarity, and reducing blue-green algae blooms. 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists 1-2

17 The Lake Okeechobee FS, which evolved with public and private involvement over the last three years, was commissioned in September 2000 by the District and conducted by Blasland, Bouck & Lee, Inc. (BBL) and its partners, Tetra-Tech, Inc., Environmental Quality, Inc., and Haysmar, Inc. 1.3 Regulatory Drivers This FS was specifically required by the Lake Okeechobee Protection Act, House Bill 991 [now Florida Statute (3)(f)], under the Lake Okeechobee Internal Phosphorus Management Program, which states, By July 1, 2003 the District in cooperation with the other coordinated agencies and interested parties, shall complete a Lake Okeechobee internal phosphorus load removal Feasibility Study. The Feasibility Study shall be based on technical feasibility as well as economic considerations and address all reasonable methods of phosphorus removal. If methods are found to be feasible, the District shall immediately pursue the design, funding, and permitting for implementing such methods. In addition, this study was driven by the Lake Okeechobee Issue Team Action Plan (Harvey and Havens, 1999) and was designed to support management decisions by the District s Governing Board. Overall, the goals for this project must remain consistent and compatible with the goals that have been set forth in the following: The Central and South Florida Project Comprehensive Review Study (United States Army Corps of Engineers [USACE], 1999a), which has evolved into the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Program (CERP), led by the USACE and the District; The Surface Water Improvement and Management (SWIM) Plan (SFWMD, 1997); The Lower West Coast Water Supply Plan (SFWMD, 2000a); The Lower East Coast Water Supply Plan (LEC Plan; SFWMD, 2000b); and The Lake Okeechobee Regulation Schedule Study (LORSS) conducted by the USACE (1999b). 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists 1-3

18 1.4 Feasibility Study Process The three-year FS was designed to progress in five major stages or tasks: Task 1 Establishment of goals and performance measures (BBL, 2001a) and preparation of a public outreach plan (BBL, 2000); Task 2 Development of a specific array of alternatives to be evaluated in detail in the Feasibility Study (BBL, 2001b); Task 3 Preparation of a work plan for conducting the detailed evaluation of alternatives (BBL 2002); Task 4 Detailed evaluation of the alternatives (the focus of this document); and Task 5 Prioritization of alternatives, weighting of performance measures, and selection of an appropriate course of action. Tasks 1 through 3 were finalized in 2001 and 2002 and were developed in cooperation with the public, the regulatory community, and private entities. This document presents Task 4 the detailed evaluation of the alternatives, which is the culmination of the technical portion of the FS process. As mentioned above, the purpose of the FS is to evaluate sediment management options and to compare these to a No In-Lake Action baseline scenario to evaluate the resulting impact on internal phosphorus loading. The overall goal for lake-wide average phosphorus concentrations is tied to the Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) goal of 140 metric tons, set in both the Lake Okeechobee Action Plan (Harvey and Havens, 1999) and the District s SWIM Plan (SFWMD, 1997). The five main goals of the project, were developed during Task 1 with input from interested parties and the public and presented in the Goals and Performance Measures report (BBL, 2001a). The goals are as follows: Goal 1 Maximize water quality improvements; Goal 2 Maximize engineering feasibility and implementability; Goal 3 Maximize cost effectiveness; Goal 4 Maximize environmental benefits; and Goal 5 Maximize socioeconomic benefits. 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists 1-4

19 Twenty six performance measures associated with the above-referenced goals, which were also developed collaboratively with the public and regulatory communities, are summarized in Section 2 and described in more detail in Appendix F. Following an initial screening of a wide range of available sediment management technologies and process options, 36 were deemed potentially applicable for managing internal phosphorus loading in Lake Okeechobee. These 36 options were evaluated in detail in the Development of Alternatives report (BBL, 2001b) with respect to potential feasibility for use in the lake. The four screening criteria initially applied were: effectiveness, implementability, applicability to Lake Okeechobee, and risk and reliability. As a result of the assessment process, the project team screened out the technologies and specific process options that were not feasible for use in Lake Okeechobee. This evaluation was based on the four screening criteria listed above, numerous case studies, findings and information presented in current research, vendor information, and considerations unique to Lake Okeechobee. The 14 technologies and process options retained were used as building blocks to create a set of sediment management alternatives, that if implemented, could potentially meet the objective of reducing internal phosphorus loading. A complete list of the initial sediment management options, the detailed evaluations of each technology and process option, and a summary of those technologies retained for further consideration, is provided in the Development of Alternatives report (BBL, 2001b). In Task 3, the team developed the Work Plan for the Evaluation of Alternatives, a work breakdown structure in essence a detailed road map for coordinating and completing the evaluation of alternatives (BBL, 2002). The processes identified in Task 3 are applied here in the formal evaluation stage (Task 4). The primary objectives of the analyses presented in this report are to determine the feasibility and potential overall effectiveness of each alternative, and provide the District with 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists 1-5

20 defensible quantitative and qualitative data that can be readily used in Task 5 to prioritize the alternatives and select an appropriate future course of action for Lake Okeechobee. As part of the alternative evaluation process, the initial list of alternatives was refined to the following No In-Lake Action with monitoring of external loads (see Section 3), Chemical Treatment with aluminum compounds (see Section 4), and Hydraulic Dredging with various post-dredge sediment management scenarios (see Section 5). These alternatives represent the possible range of options that could be implemented in the lake. The remainder of this Evaluation of Alternatives report addresses the following basic questions: What will happen to the lake if we do nothing active to address phosphorus in the sediments? How long will it take the lake to recover if we address reductions in external loads only? Of the feasible alternatives, which is the most effective for addressing phosphorus in the lake? How long will the alternative take to implement? How much will the alternative cost? What are the potential impacts and benefits (environmental, economic, other) of the alternative? 1.5 For More Information This Feasibility Study is an ongoing process that is an important part of charting a future course for Lake Okeechobee. With the review of the alternatives and the weighting of the performance measures still ahead (Task 5), the District welcomes public and interagency involvement in the process. For more information, access to other reports, and news regarding this Feasibility Study, please visit the project website at or contact the District Project Manager, as follows: Jorge Patino, P.E. South Florida Water Management District Phone: (561) Fax: (561) jpatino@sfwmd.gov 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists 1-6

21 2. Approach to Evaluation of Alternatives 2.1 Overall Approach The overall goal of the FS evaluation was to perform an objective science- and engineering-based analysis of the feasibility of each alternative and, to the extent possible, to evaluate the expected performance of each alternative within Lake Okeechobee. To meet this goal, a consistent approach was required to minimize bias or error in the method, results, or reporting. The same methods, tools, and data prescribed under each performance measure were used to evaluate the merits of each alternative. In this way, the relative feasibility and performance of each alternative is estimated and compared against that performance measure s target value or condition. This report incorporates, to the extent possible, the information generated during Environmental Associates (EA s) pilot dredging project (EA, 2002a and 2002b), the findings of the lake sediment phosphorus dynamics study as reported by the team from the University of Florida under the direction of Dr. Ramesh Reddy (Reddy et al., 2002), and the findings of the beneficial reuse study prepared by OA Systems (OA, 2002). In addition to the most current data and technical knowledge, BBL gathered input from appropriate local, state, and federal agencies and considered feedback received during all four public/interagency meetings. Several methods were used to evaluate the sediment management alternatives. Computer modeling was performed to quantitatively assess the water quality impacts of each alternative in the near and long term. A public and interagency outreach process was developed and implemented to identify concerns and issues in the local and regional communities. Data relating to sediment quality, water quality, socioeconomic conditions, submerged aquatic vegetation, wildlife, and existing and future land use were reviewed to develop an understanding of where the potential impacts and/or benefits would occur with any given sediment management alternative. A brief discussion of activities performed to assess the alternatives is provided below. 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists 2-1

22 2.1.1 Modeling The two primary models used to simulate the no action, chemical treatment, and dredging scenarios are as follows: 1) Lake Okeechobee Water Quality Model (LOWQM; James and Bierman, 1995; Bierman and James, 1995; James et al., 1997; Jin et al., 1998); and 2) Internal Loading Phosphorus Model (ILPM; Pollman, 2000). The LOWQM and ILPM models have both been calibrated to Lake Okeechobee and are used to simulate the long-term effects of external nutrient reduction scenarios on total phosphorus dynamics in the pelagic zone of the lake. The LOWQM also is used to simulate changes in nitrogen dynamics, total nitrogen to total phosphorus (TN:TP) ratio, and chlorophyll a. The LOWQM also has recently been revised to improve how diagenesis of phosphorus in the surficial sediments is represented (James et al., in preparation). Short-term effects were predicted using the Lake Okeechobee 3-D Hydrodynamic Transport Model (LOHTM), which was developed explicitly for Lake Okeechobee by Jin and Hamrick (2000) from Hamrick and Wu s (1997) Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code (EFDC). LOHTM is a threedimensional, dynamic model that was designed to examine circulation patterns and vertical mixing lakewide. The model has a grid structure of 58 x 66 horizontal cells, each cell being 925 meters (m) to a side, with six vertically stretched cells (i.e., each cell is 1/6 of the water depth), yielding a total number of 2,216 active water cells (Jin and Hamrick, 2000). When linked with Delft University s Simulating WAves Near-shore (SWAN) model, which predicts wind-wave parameters, LOHTM can be used to predict the varying concentrations of total suspended solids (TSS) across the lake (spatial) and over time in response to changing meteorological and physical conditions. The modeling results, as they relate to each alternative, are described in detail in Sections 3, 4, and 5. 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists 2-2

23 2.1.2 Public and Interagency Outreach A series of four public and interagency meetings were held at key junctures throughout the Feasibility Study process as described in the Public Outreach Plan (BBL, 2000). These meetings were held in Belle Glade, Moore Haven, Okeechobee, and West Palm Beach. The goal of the outreach process was to inform the community at large about the issues associated with the internal loading of phosphorus and to gather input regarding the information generated throughout the study. Preparation of reports (i.e., Goals and Performance Measures, Development of the Alternatives, Work Plan, and this Evaluation of Alternatives) for this project was performed in a collaborative and interactive manner with assistance from Florida Fish and Freshwater Conservation Commission (FWC), USACE, the District, and other interested parties. Once finalized, documents were posted on the web and mailed to any individual or organization requesting hard copies. Public notices, fact sheets, letters, and invitation cards were mailed to more than 700 people prior to each of the public meetings. Follow-up calls were made to about 30% of the individuals and groups on the mailing list to ascertain that everyone had the information needed. A stakeholder database, as well as the materials and minutes generated for each of the outreach meetings, is provided in Appendix C. The alternative-specific feedback provided as part of the outreach process is presented in Sections 3, 4, and 5, as applicable Data Collection and Review Lake Okeechobee-specific literature searches were performed for relevant information related to sediment treatment for phosphorus loading, water quality, limnology, sediment quality, sediment biogeochemistry, land acquisition, permitting, and wildlife. A number of interviews were also conducted with FWC staff members to develop an understanding of current habitat and wildlife conditions on the lake. A list of sources and resources is provided at the end of the reference section of this document (Section 7). The applicable information gathered during these searches is provided in the alternative-specific evaluations in Sections 3, 4, and 5. 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists 2-3

24 Sediment Characterization Recognizing the fundamental importance of understanding the lake s sediment characteristics, published data related to sediment quality in the lake were reviewed and additional samples were collected and analyzed to fill certain data gaps. A brief summary of the sediment characteristics is provided below. For the purposes of this Feasibility Study, the sediments targeted for management actions are those located in the central pelagic mud zone of Lake Okeechobee (Figure 1-4). Covering approximately 83,000 hectares (ha), or about 44% of the lake s total surface area (Reddy, 1991a), the mud zone is estimated to contain approximately 193 million cubic meters (m 3 ) of phosphorus-rich sediments (Kirby et al., 1989). 1 The sediments in the mud zone range from a few centimeters (cm) in depth at the periphery to over 75 cm in depth at the central, deepest section of the lake (Kirby et al., 1989) and are composed of 25% organic matter, 25% carbonate matter, and 50% inorganic residue (Reddy, 1991a; Brezonik and Engstrom, 1998). The mud sediments are characterized as black organic-rich muds (Kirby et al., 1989) and are estimated to contain 84.2% water by weight (Reddy, 1991a). Analytical testing of sediment cores obtained from the mud zone indicate that total phosphorus (TP) in the mud sediments ranges from approximately 200 to 2,000 milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg), with the highest concentrations in the upper mud layers (Fisher et al., 2001; Engstrom and Brezonik, 1991). Further evaluation of the data from Engstrom and Brezonik (1997; peer-reviewed/open literature publication of 1991 results) suggests that TP concentrations in the upper 10 cm and upper 30 cm average approximately 1,200 mg/kg and 990 mg/kg, respectively (Figure 2-1). 1 It is interesting to note that concentrations of total phosphorus in Lake Okeechobee are not unusually high for Florida lakes. In a study of 97 Florida lakes spanning a broad range of trophic states, the concentrations of TP in surficial (top 2 cm) sediments averaged 1,600 mg/kg (Brenner and Binford, 1988) and ranged as high as 8,090 mg/kg. In Lake Okeechobee, the average concentration of TP in the top 1 cm of mud zone sediments is 1,310 mg/kg (data from Engstrom, personal communication), nearly 20% lower than the average reported by Brenner and Binford. 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists 2-4

25 Kirby et al. (1989) found that the sediments in the mud zone were overlain by a fluid mud veneer up to 8 cm thick. This overlying fluid mud layer was found to have no measurable shear strength and a density of 1.01 to 1.03 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm 3 ). Density of the underlying, more consolidated mud layer was found by Kirby et al. (1989) to range upwards to 1.2 g/cm 3, with a maximum density of 1.3 g/cm 3. The median density of the surficial 10 cm of the sediment is g/cm 3 (data from Reddy et al., 2002). Additional chemical, geotechnical, and elutriation tests were performed for sediment core samples acquired by BBL during September and October These data, as presented in Appendix B and discussed in Section 5, have been used to conduct portions of the engineering evaluations in this FS. Dry bulk density results are presented for sectioned sediment cores from 26 stations. The average of the 26 core intervals taken from 0-15 cm was 0.14 grams per milliliter (g/ml) 2, while the average of the 26 core intervals from 15 cm deep to base material was 0.23 g/ml. Eleven sediment samples had the following average geotechnical properties: 33.9% organics; 35.2% moisture content; 23.2% solids (wet weight [w/w]); 2.17 g/ml solids specific gravity; and 0.27 g/ml dry density. Sieve analyses averaged 69.7% passing #200 sieve, with average sand content of 30.3%. Evaluations of sediment heavy metal analyses are presented in Appendix B. The sediment data for 13 metals were compared to Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) Cleanup Target Levels (CTLs) for Soil and to the United States Environmental Protection Agency s (USEPA's) June 2000 probable effects concentration (PEC) levels for fresh water sediments. None of the sediment samples exceeded PECs for fresh water; however, many of the samples exceeded FDEP cleanup target levels for arsenic in soil. Because of these exceedances for arsenic, reuse of sediments applied in the region as soil blended material would likely require additional management such as institutional controls. Elutriation tests for three samples showed, after resuspension and settling, that supernatant phosphorus concentrations were not elevated (and were actually reduced slightly), while the 24-hour elutriate showed elevated turbidity, suspended solids, aluminum, and iron concentrations. 2 Note that for density measurements, results reported as either g/ml or g/cm 3 are equivalent. Units are presented as in published reports. 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists 2-5

26 Internal Loading Evaluation As evident from the literature, internal loading results from the complex interplay of dynamic physical, chemical, and biological processes in the lake. Appendix A provides a summary of the literature available regarding internal loading and a theoretical framework of the conceptual model. Many aspects of this conceptual model have been developed extensively by Havens et al. (2000) and Havens and Schelske (2000). Rather than reproduce that work here, we have included both papers in Appendix A. In general, internal loading refers to the resupply or recycling of phosphorus within the lake, principally from the sediments. Virtually all lakes function over long time scales as net sinks for phosphorus (i.e., lakes receive more phosphorus from external sources than they export). Depending on the form as it enters the lake, phosphorus can initially be (1) taken up directly by primary producers (soluble inorganic phosphorus); (2) metabolized in the water column by bacteria (labile organic phosphorus), and then taken up by primary producers; or (3) deposited in the sediments as organic and inorganic particulate phosphorus (see, for example, Rigler, 1975; Wetzel, 1975; Lampert and Sommer, 1997). Regardless of its initial fate, a significant fraction of the phosphorus entering the lake eventually is deposited in the sediments. This is because decomposition of organic matter is rarely wholly efficient or complete in mineralizing and releasing phosphorus. This deposited phosphorus continues to mineralize, and as a result, concentrations of dissolved inorganic phosphorus in the sediment porewaters can build up to concentrations several orders of magnitude in excess of dissolved inorganic phosphorus concentrations in the overlying water column. Internal loading results when phosphorus from this enriched pool is introduced into the water column, either through wind-wave induced resuspension of sediment particles containing comparatively high concentrations of exchangeable phosphorus, or through more passive exchange processes, such as bioturbation (Figure 2-2) Socioeconomic Evaluation In order to evaluate the impacts or benefits associated with various alternatives that might be implemented in Lake Okeechobee, it was necessary to benchmark baseline economic conditions in the region of the Lake Rim. As described in the Work Plan, two data matrices were constructed to support 4/10/2003 engineers & scientists 2-6

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