The impact of computer-based technologies in Schools a preliminary literature review. Vijendra Lal (October 2002)

Transcription

1 The impact of computer-based technologies in Schools a preliminary literature review Vijendra Lal (October 2002) Introduction The introduction of computer based learning technologies in schools has impacted on the teaching and learning in a number of ways. A review of literature relating to this in both Australia and internationally shows that whilst there is a significant body of theoretical and anecdotal literature relating to the benefits of using such technologies there has not been many rigorous and systematic studies that have investigated their impact on teaching and learning (Bennett & Lockyer, 1999), (Harper, et.al, 2000) This is due to a number of factors. They include a lack of resources and expertise in schools to do research including a culture in schools which does not encourage research, the vast amount of time taken up in technology implementations and the embryonic nature of this field which is still developing and undergoing constant change (McKenzie, 1995), (Bennett and Lockyer, 1999) From a review of the literature relating to the impact of computer based technologies on teaching and learning which has been available, the areas which have received some attention relate to: Teachers perceptions of the technology Learners perceptions of the technology, including their attitudes and motivations Impact of computer technologies on learning outcomes Impact of computer technologies on the learning environment of classrooms including the learning activities which take place in the classroom and the teaching and learning strategies used to facilitate them. The technology infrastructure of schools and related issues like access Professional development activities to support teachers Factors influencing the integration of computer based technologies in the classroom. Impact of computer technologies on different student groups Let us briefly look at some of the key findings of studies in each of these areas. Teachers perceptions of the technology A number of investigations have been conducted to understand teachers perceptions of computer-based technologies. The impact of computer-based technologies in Schools literature review (VL 10/02) 1

2 Balli et al (1997) investigated pre-service teachers reactions to technology available in schools and its use by students. They found that many of these teachers were surprised by the sophisticated nature of what was available in schools and the students abilities in using them. This led many of them to reassess their perceptions and it also helped increase their confidence levels in using these technologies. Some studies have noted how teachers perceptions and practices have changed as they move from a position of anxiety to increasing comfort (CELT report, 1995) (Bernauer, 1996) Differences in teacher perceptions of technology in high and low access schools have also been identified (Heflich, 1996). Those from high access schools had more positive perceptions about computers ability to increase access to information and enhance communication than their colleagues in low access schools who tended to be concerned more about the ability of their students in managing large amounts of information. A comparison of perceptions of teachers and students showed that only 58% of teachers viewed the internet as a useful teaching and learning tool as opposed to 92% of students. (Richards, 1996) Another study found that teachers with online access deal with a wider range of information and learn more about their subjects, acquire more information from their students and have more positive interactions with parents than those without online access (Follansbee et.al 1996) A study of the Queensland K-12 whole-school approach to technology diffusion for distance education reported that, as part of the first phase of the study, teachers increased confidence and competency in computer skills and had begun using the Internet and integrating computer based technologies in their classrooms. (Henderson and Bradey, 1999) Learners perceptions of the technology, including their attitudes and motivation There isn t a lot of research in the area of learner perceptions in school settings. One, which is part of the Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT) research initiative, followed six students who used computer technologies during 4 years of high school. (Tierney, R. J et al 1992, 1996). The results, which were based on both observations and interviews with the students, showed shifts in the way the students, used the technology and how they viewed themselves as learners. The study of attitudes and motivations of learner s using computers has had a bit more attention from researchers. O Hara (1998) studied the attitudes and behaviour of fifth grade students using the internet and found increased motivation for and focus on the learning task. Richards (1996) reports on teachers comments on increased student motivations when working with The impact of computer-based technologies in Schools literature review (VL 10/02) 2

3 computers in the Bell Atlantic s World School Program. Also 92 % of the students in this program rated the internet as an effective learning tool. Follansbee et, al (1996) compared the learning outcomes of students doing a project based task with and without online access. Those with online access demonstrated more confidence in conducting and presenting the problem based research task. Chessler et al (1998) and Sandholtz et al (1997) in their studies also found evidence of increased and sustained student motivation where computers were well integrated in the classrooms. Impact of computer technologies on learning outcomes A number of studies have explored the impact of computer-based technologies on learning outcomes and reported on some improvements to student learning outcomes. Denton and Manus (1995) who analysed standardised test scores of students from 8 schools using computer technologies found that only some schools showed improvements but this was not evident in all subject areas. Follansbee et al (1996) found that students with online access produced better projects in terms of presentation, integration of different perspectives and presentation of a full picture. Chessler et al (1998) found that teachers reported a higher quality of work from students who used laptops than those who didn t. Tierney et al (1996) found that over time students who use computers begin to explore and express ideas in fairly sophisticated ways using graphical and other non-linear forms. Williams (1999) found that sixth graders who worked in a hyper media supported context were able to solve problems more effectively than those who didn t. Richards (1996) who surveyed teachers found that they reported on improvements in their students reading, writing and team skills as a result of using computers. Impact of computer technologies on the learning environment of classrooms A number of studies have focused on the impact of computer technologies on the learning environment of classrooms including the learning activities which take place in the classroom, and the teaching and learning strategies used to facilitate them. The impact of computer-based technologies in Schools literature review (VL 10/02) 3

4 Kaye (1995) found that students in a networked learning environment are able to do discovery-based, student centred learning through a range of individualised and collaborative activities. Follansbee et al (1996) found those students with computers and online access tended to gather, organise and present information in multimedia formats for tasks that related to a project-based unit of study. Bernauer (1996) in his investigation reported on students producing their own hypermedia software with the introduction of computers at his school. Solis (1997) reports on students using computers to collaboratively construct webbased virtual environments. Wiesenmayer and Koul (1998) reported on how the internet was used in hands-on, project- based activities, including collaboration both within and outside the classroom. Bernauer (1996) noted another impact of computer-based technologies in the classroom learning environment. This related to the need for different timetable arrangements and the need for longer class periods to accommodate project based work with computers. Like the learning activities, some teaching practices and strategies have also undergone changes with the use of computers and some studies have focussed on this. Findings, which have been reported, include: Teachers re-examining their practices and their role as a result of the introduction of computers in schools (Sandholtz, 1997) Teachers who used the internet were more likely to report changes in teaching practices than non users (Becker, 1997) Teachers were more willing to discuss a subject in which they lacked expertise and were happy to get the assistance of their students. They also tended to give students greater choices in tasks, and resources they could use to complete them (Becker, 1998) Technology has changed the way in which teachers use resources. They tend to re-purpose resources and develop their own hypermedia materials (Bernauer, 1996) Teachers use internet material to supplement or replace traditional textbooks (Wiesenmayer and Koul, 1998) Teachers at high access schools tend to be more constructivist in their approach to teaching and learning and those in low access schools who tended to be more teacher directed (Heflich, 1996) Majority of teachers in a school which integrated technology appeared to change their pedagogy to integrate new ways of teaching and learning (Henderson and Bradey, 1999) The impact of computer-based technologies in Schools literature review (VL 10/02) 4

5 The technology infrastructure of schools and related issues like access Some studies have also been done to investigate the computer infrastructure available in schools. (STAR reports: 1997, 1999). Some have reported on the widening gap between rich and poor districts and differences in home and school computer access and use (CCA Research Data, 1996). This research also found the dominance of computer labs in schools as opposed to putting computers in classrooms. Factors that have influenced the uptake and integration of computer based technologies in the classroom. Some studies have also looked at factors, which have influenced technology uptake in schools. The findings have included: Ease of internet access (Heflich, 1996) Involvement of the whole school community (Bernauer, 1996) Support of the school principal, commitment of teachers to professional development in the area of technology, collaborative professional development projects and staged implementations (Henderson and Bradey, 1999) Rallying of schools around a technology goal and a good interpersonal relationship between the teacher and technology administrator ( Huges, 1998) Professional development activities to support teachers A number of studies and reports have focussed on issues relating to teachers professional development and how best to prepare them in integrating the use of computers in the classroom. Some of the suggestions include: Develop pre-service teachers computer skills via field placements (Balli et al, 1997) Compensate teachers who undertake professional development courses in order to maintain their motivations (Meghabghab and Price, 1997) Get teachers to develop multimedia software as part of their professional development (Backer and Saltmarch, 1999) Get collaborative teams to do task based activities which focus on pedagogy when using multimedia and the WWW in teaching (Henderson and Bradey, 1999) Provide models and examples of technology use in inservice workshops (Hughes, 1998) Use internet technologies for teacher professional development and collaboration (Kaye, 1996) (Rosenstein and Cole, 1999) Impact of computer technologies on different student groups The impact of computer-based technologies in Schools literature review (VL 10/02) 5

6 Not many studies have been done regarding the impact of computer based technologies on students from different groups. A recent Market Research conducted by the Faculty of Education, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, on behalf of SOCCI (Schools online curriculum content initiative) (Queensland University of Technology, 2001) confirms this. It points out that very little research has been done regarding the use of computer based learning technologies by students from a range of backgrounds. However, one area where some research has been done relates to the impact of computers on students from different gender. The main findings, which have been reported so far, are: At the kindergarten level boys tend to be more attracted to movement whereas girls are more attracted to visual aspects (Passing and Levin, 2000) Boys in middle and high schools spend significantly more time on computers, see computers as a male thing and tend to have higher confidence levels than girls. (Young, 2000) There is a difference in the ways in which males and females at the primary level process information from different modes of multimedia presentation (Riding & Grimley, 1999) Boys and girls at the primary level tend to prefer software which align with their interests however girls don t mind software which is gender neutral (Joiner, 1998) Societies expectations of the roles of different genders is reflected in how boys and girls and their teachers view and use computers in the classroom (Huber et al, 1998) Women in distance based universities had a significantly more negative perception of computer based technology and a preference for traditional methods than men. (Proost and Lowyck, 1997) Men and women in higher education online learning environments display differences in their social and interactive behaviours (Barrett & Lally. 1999) Conclusion From the above review of research literature relating to the impact of computer based technologies in teaching and learning in schools, it is evident that there are a number of areas which have received some attention. These relate to: Teachers perceptions of the technology Learners perceptions of the technology, including their attitudes and motivations Impact of computer technologies on learning outcomes Impact of computer technologies on the learning environment of classrooms, including the learning activities which take place in the classroom and the teaching and learning strategies used to facilitate them. The impact of computer-based technologies in Schools literature review (VL 10/02) 6

7 The technology infrastructure of schools and related issues like access Professional development activities to support teachers Factors that have influenced the integration of computer based technologies in the classroom. Impact of computer technologies on different student groups Whilst these areas have covered a range of issues and come up with interesting findings, much more needs to be done in those areas which have not received a lot of attention, especially in the context of school education in Australia. One such area, relates to the impact of computer based technologies on students from different cultural backgrounds. There is a need for research to move beyond investigating the issues it has looked at to date to investigate how the introduction of computer-based technologies is changing the learning environments of classrooms and how these changes are impacting on the learning of students from different cultural backgrounds. References Bennett & Lockyer (1999) The Impact of Digital Technologies on Teaching and Learning in K-12 Education. Report prepared for the Curriculum Corporation, (Available URL: Balli, S. J., Wright, M. D. & Foster, P. N. (1997) Preservice teachers' field experiences with technology. Educational Technology. 37(5): Barrett, E & Lally, V. (1999) Gender differences in an on-line learning environment Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 15, Becker, H. (1997) Two years of progress in the national school network schools, Paper presented at TelEd'97. Austin, TX. [Available URL: Becker, H. J. (1998) The influence of computer and internet use of teacher' pedagogical practices and perceptions, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Education Research Association [Available URL: gy-nsn-.html/]. Bernauer, J. A. (1996) Technology and leadership. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (New York, NY, April 8-12, 1996) (Eric document ED394503). Bromley, H (1998) Introduction: Data-Driven Democracy? Social Assessment of Educational Computing in Education, technology, power: educational computing as a social practice, ed. H Bromley and M W Apple, State University of New York, USA The impact of computer-based technologies in Schools literature review (VL 10/02) 7

8 CCA Research (1996) Understanding information technology in kindergarten through grade 12, Report to Respondents. Wellesley, MA (Eric document ED392391). Centre for Educational Leadership and Technology (CELT) (1995) America's 21 st century school: linking education reform and technology. Marlborough, MA (Eric document ED393396). CEO Forum (1997) School technology and readiness. (STAR) Report [Available URL: CEO Forum (1999) Year two school technology and readiness. (STAR) Report [Available URL: Chessler, M., Rockman, S., and Walker, L. (1998) Powerful tools for schooling: second year study of the laptop program. San Francisco: Rockman ET AL. Curriculum Support Directorate (1977) Computer-based technologies in the primary KLAs. New South Wales Department of Education and Training. Denton, J. J. & Manus, A. L. (1995) Accountability effects of integrating technology in evolving professional development schools. (Eric document ED393443). Follansbee, S., Gilsdorf, N., Stahl, S., Dunfey, J., Cohen, S., Pisha, B. & Hughes, B. (1996) The role of online communication in schools: a national study. Peabody, MA: Center for Applied Special Technology. Harper, et.al (2000) Review of Research: the on-line experience: the state of Australian on-line education and training practices. Report prepared for NCVER Heflich, D. A. (1996) The impact of online technology on teaching and learning: attitudes and ideas of educators in the field. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association (25th, Tuscaloosa, AL, November 6-8, 1996). Henderson, L. and Bradey, S. (1999) Getting computer information technologies used in teaching and learning: A Model of Technology Diffusion in a K-10 School. Proceedings of ED-MEDIA/ED-TELECOM 99 World Conference on Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia & World Conference on Educational Telecommunications. (pp ). Charlottesville, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. Huber, B.R and Schofield J W (1998) The Gender Gap: Why Do Girls Get Turned Off to Technology? Education, technology, power: educational computing as a social practice, ed. H Bromley and M W Apple, State University of New York, USA pp The impact of computer-based technologies in Schools literature review (VL 10/02) 8

9 Joiner, R.W (1998) The effect of gender on children s software preferences, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 14: Kaye, J. C. (1996) Characteristics of effective networking environments. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, NY, April 8-12, (Eric document ED394502). Kelly, Karen. (2000) The Gender Gap: Why Do Girls Get Turned Off to Technology? The Digital Classroom, ed. D. T. Gordon, The Harvard Education Letter, Cambridge, pp Kerr, S.T. (2000) Toward a Sociology of Educational Technology Handbook of Research for Education Communications and Technology. ed. D. H. Jonassen, New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, pp McRae, D (2001) What to make, and why: principles for the design and development of online curriculum content. Report prepared for SOCCI. [Available URL: McKenzie, J. (1995) "Did anybody learn anything?" Assessing technology programs and the learning accomplished. From Now On. 5(4). [Available URL: O'Hara, S. P. (1998) A case study of attitudinal effects of Internet use in a middle school integrated science curriculum. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (71st, San Diego, CA, April 19-22, 1998) (Eric document ED417978). Passing, D. & Levin, H. (2000) Gender Preferences for Multimedia interfaces, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 16: Proost, K., Elen J. & Lowyck J. (1997) Effects of Gender on Perceptions of and Preferences for Telematic Learning Environments, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, Summer, 29(4): Queensland University of Technology, Faculty of Education, (2001) SOCCI Market Research Report [Available URL: Richards, F. C. (1996) The impact of the Internet on teaching and learning as perceived by teachers, library media specialists and students. Unpublished Masters thesis. Salem-Teikyo University. (Eric document ED410943). Riding, R. & Grimley, M. (1999) Cognitive style, gender and learning from multi-media materials in 11 year old children, British Journal of Educational Technology, 30, 1: Rosenstein Cole, B. (1999). Characterizing forms of on-line participation in a teacher professional development setting. Proceedings of ED-MEDIA/ED- TELECOM 99 World Conference on Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia The impact of computer-based technologies in Schools literature review (VL 10/02) 9

10 & World Conference on Educational Telecommunications. pp Charlottesville, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. Sandholtz, J. H., Ringstaff, C. & Dwyer, D. C. (1997) Teaching with technology: creating student-centred classrooms. New York: Teachers College Press. Spender, K (1995) Nattering on the Net: women, power and cyberspace. Spinifex Press, North Melbourne Tierney, R. J., Kieffer, R., Stowell, L., Desai, L. E. & Whalin, K. (1992) Computer acquisition: a longitudinal study of the influence of high computer access on students' thinking, learning, and interactions. ACOT Report #16. Cupertino, CA: Apple Computer. Tierney, R. J. (1996) Redefining computer appropriation: a five-year study of acot students. In Education and Technology: Reflections on Computing in Classrooms (C. Fisher, D. C. Dwyer & K. Yocam, Eds). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. pp Wiesenmayer, R. & Koul, R. (1998) Integrating Internet resources into the science classroom: Teachers' perspectives. Journal of Science Education and Technology. 7(3), Williams, D. C. (1999) The effects of expert stories on sixth grade students achievement and problem solving in hypermedia-supported authentic learning environments (HALE). Proceedings of ED-MEDIA/ED-TELECOM 99 World Conference on Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia & World Conference on Educational Telecommunications. pp Charlottesville, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. Winfield et al (1999) Design Considerations for Enhancing Confidence and Participation in Web Based Courses Yates, S.J (1997) Gender, identity and CMC, Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 13: Young B. L. (2000) Gender Differences in Student Attitudes towards Computers, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, Winter, 33(2): The impact of computer-based technologies in Schools literature review (VL 10/02) 10