Team Handball Long Term Athlete Development Model. For the Period Canadian Team Handball Federation

Transcription

1 Team Handball Long Term Athlete Development Model For the Period Canadian Team Handball Federation

2 Table of Contents Athlete development model 3 Part 1: Athlete progression: overview 4 A) Categories and age groups 4 B) Structures 5 C) Competitive networks 5 D) Stages of development and available programs 6 E) The 10 key LTAD factors 8-10 Part 2: Demands of the sport at the high-performance level: athlete profile 11 Physical demands Technical and tactical demands Psychological demands 25 Part 3: Review of growth and maturation principles Guidelines Growth and development Part 4 : Frames of reference 33 Stage of development: Active Child 34 Stage of development: FUNdamentals 36 Stage of development: Learn to Train 38 Stage of development: Train to Train 40 Stage of development: Train to Compete 42 Stage of development: Train to Win 44 Coach and referee qualifications 46 Peripheral support services 48 Importance of the four components (physical, technical, tactical, and psychological) Part 5: Requirements of successful high performance programs Guidelines for athlete identification Selection criteria Annexes 57 Table 1 58 Figure 1 60 Table 2 61 Table 3 62 References 63

3 catégories / âges Schéma du cheminement idéal de l' athlète HANDBALL programmes offerts et Stades de développement Senior 22 ans et plus (+) Légende pyramide: Bleu = Réseaux de compétition Noir = Structures d'accueil professionnel S'entraîner à gagner - Détection de talent "excellence" Ligue civile Équipe Nationales Centres régionaux CNMM - camp de sélection/ perfectionnement -Soutien scientifique -Soutien financier Championnat canadien Championnat Panaméricain Championnat du Monde - Détection de talent "élite" Junior ans Ligue civile Équipe Nationales Centres régionaux CNMM Championnat canadien Championnat Panaméricain Championnat du Monde - camps de sélection/ perfectionnement - Soutien scientifique - Soutien financier Juvénile ans Cadet ans Ligue scolaire (secondaire) et civile Équipes nationales Centres régionaux Ligue scolaire (secondaire) et civile Centres régionaux Championnat canadien Championnat Panaméricain Championnat du Monde Championnats provinciaux Tournée internationale SPORT- ÉTUDES S'entraîner à la compétition - Détection de talent "relève" -Sport-études - camps de sélection/ perfectionnement - Soutien scientifique - Soutien financier S'entraîner à s'entraîner Benjamin ans Ligue scolaire (secondaire) et civile Championnats provinciaux - détection de talent "espoir" - Sport-études - camp de sélection/ perfectionnement Minime - de 12 ans Mini-handball scolaire (primaire), civile et communautaire Tournois locaux Championnats provinciaux Apprendre à s'entraîner 0-6 ans et 6-9 ans: "Enfant actif" et "s'amuser grâce aux sports": Le plaisir doit rester la priorité. Stucture: école, garderie, maison, centre communautaire, parc etc Diagram showing the ideal progression of team handball players 3

4 PART 1- ATHLETE PROGRESSION: OVERVIEW As can be seen in the previous diagram, the progression of Team Handball players can be described using four (4) key aspects: A) Categories and age groups B) Structures C) Competitive networks D) Stages of development, and available programs at each stage Such an approach makes it possible to determine where a particular athlete stands in the path towards high performance. In addition, the diagram shown on page 3 allows athletes, parents, coaches, members of the Federation, and other key stakeholders to know at a glance the progressive steps involved in a player s development throughout his or her career. In other words, this figure represents the ideal pathway players should follow. For this reason, it is a useful point of reference to introduce the present document, which outlines Handball Canada s long terms athlete development model. A brief description of the various aspects of this diagram will therefore be provided in the following pages. A) CATEGORIES AND AGE GROUPS There are 6 age group categories in Team Handball: Categories Age groups (years) Minime * 12 and less Benjamin Cadet Juvenile Junior Senior 22 and over * Usually, Minime players are between 9 and 11 years of age. Exceptionally, players aged 7 or 8 may also be accepted in this category. 4

5 B) STRUCTURES In team sports, the term structures generally refers to the organizations within which athletes train, compete, and develop. The primary structures in Team Handball are: - Clubs - School leagues - Civilian leagues - Regional centres - Provincial Teams - National Teams Depending on (1) the nature of the programs that are offered/available, and (2) their actual level of performance, athletes may be part of such structures on a more or less permanent basis. C) COMPETITIVE NETWORKS At the bottom of the pyramidal system described on page 3, competitive networks are can be considered low-level. Players usually take part in invitational, regional, or provincial tournaments. However, even in such introductory competitive networks, some form of selection and talent identification may take place, and a few talented athletes may have the opportunity to participate in national - or even international - events. At age 16, players can be involved in the premier competitive league of their province: the so called provincial circuit. At this level of play, the best athletes of the Juvenile category train and compete within both Club and Provincial Teams. This is the level before the National Team. Athletes from this pool may also be selected onto the National Juvenile Team, and have the opportunity to compete at a higher level, for instance, qualifying tournaments, Pan American Championships, and even the World Championships. It is also at this age that athletes can compete for the first time in the Canadian Championships. At the Junior and Senior levels, athletes continue to compete locally, and the most talented get selected onto Provincial or National Teams. Depending on their performances, they can be classified as either elite or excellence. Of course, for these players, the preparation is extensive and demanding, and the level of competition is the highest available in the country. They train both within their Club and at the Provincial High-Performance Centre. These athletes represent Canada at the Pan American Championships, Pan American Games, and 5

6 sometimes even at the World Championships. Athletes of both the Junior and Senior categories also compete at the Canadian Championships. Several athletes may also try to play in European professional leagues. In recent years, more and more Canadian players have been selected by pro teams. They nonetheless remain part of our national system, and proudly represent the country in major international events. D) STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND AVAILABLE PROGRAMS To ensure a better understanding of the various concepts, the information dealing with the stages of development and the programs available for athlete development will appear in the same section. The reader may notice that the Active Child and FUNdamental stages appear somewhat outside our model. This does not mean that they are not important; rather, this reflects the fact that these stages do not correspond to the traditional Team Handball age group categories. The Learn to Train stage corresponds to the Minime category (12 and under). The Train to Train stage corresponds to two age group categories that are critical for the development of successful Team Handball players: Benjamin and Cadets (ages 12 to 15). Within Handball Canada s elite development stream, the best athletes from these categories are considered Espoirs. In addition to the support provided by their respective provincial federations - and therefore, to development, training and selection camps in which players may be involved - it is also important to ensure that quality sport-school programs may also be available to our high-school athletes. It is during this critical period of their development that the most talented players are detected. The Train to Compete stage involves athletes from the Juvenile category (16-17). Compared to the younger age groups, programs offered to these athletes as part of the elite development stream are more extensive, and their impact on player development is therefore greater. The best athletes of this category are considered as the relève or next wave of Handball Canada s high performance programs. Some forms of direct support from the federation are available to these players. They attend sport schools, and also participate in development, training, and selection camps organized at provincial or national levels. These athletes may also be eligible for financial and scientific support. The last stage, Train to Win, involves athletes from the Junior (18-21) and Senior (22 and over) categories identified as either elite or excellence. The 6

7 programs offered to them are essentially the same as for the Juvenile category. In addition, Handball Canada provides some support and assistance to the athletes who wish to play in European professional leagues. The Canadian Team Handball Federation wishes to mention that it adheres completely to the Long Term Athlete Development (LTAD) guidelines published by the Canadian Multisport Centres; indeed, several cornerstone principles have already started to be implemented at provincial level, and with specific age groups. The LTAD material outlines comprehensive training, competition, and recovery programs that are based on the stages of development - that is, the actual maturation level of the athlete - rather than on chronological age. Athletes who progress within such a model enjoy training and competitive opportunities that are better adapted to and reflect their physiological, cognitive, and social development as well as training background. LTAD-based programs also include periodized preparation activities tailored to their specific needs. In the material produced by the Canadian Sport for Life (CSL) working group, 10 key factors influencing LTAD are outlined. These represent the foundation of the general LTAD framework that has been proposed for the Canadian sport system during the past few years. These factors will be referred-to frequently throughout this document and, for this reason, they will be briefly described in the following pages. For more details, the reader is encouraged to consult the CSL web site at Factor 1: The 10-year rule Scientific research has shown that it takes approximately 10 years or 10,000 hours of training for a talented athlete to develop to his or her full potential, and reach the high performance level. There are no shortcuts: the development of successful elite performers is a long-term process. If the goal is to produce successful players, focussing on short term performance objectives is definitely not the way to go Factor 2: The ABCs of movement Children must develop fundamental movement abilities such as agility, balance, coordination (the ABCs of athleticism), as well as basic skills that are useful in most sports, such as running, jumping, swimming, and hitting. Unless they learn these skills at a young age, children are not likely to become successful athletes, 7

8 or to maintain an active lifestyle through regular physical activity when they are adults. Factor 3. Specialization Sports can be divided into two broad categories: early and late specialization. Team Handball falls in the latter category. Factor 4. Stages of development The LTAD model is based on the athlete s developmental age, not on his or her chronological age. Everyone goes through the same developmental stages from early childhood to adolescence, but the time at each stage, the rate of change, and the overall scope of development are not the same for everyone. During puberty and adolescence, athletes of the same chronological age may differ by as many as 4 or 5 years in terms of physical or mental development. Coaches must understand and appreciate these differences, and take them into account when they design their programs. Factor 5. Trainability All physiological system scan be improved through training but there are critical periods of life when the response to specific forms of training is optimal. To achieve his or her full genetic potential, an athlete must therefore train the right performance factors at the right time. The five basic performance factors that all athletes need to train are stamina, strength, speed, suppleness and skills (see Table 1 and Figure 1 in Appendix). Factor 6. Global approach When working with athletes, coaches must take a global approach. At each stage, they must pay attention to the emotional, mental, and cognitive development of the athlete, in addition to the physical and technical aspects. Coaches must also realize that recovery plays an important role in the athlete s developmental process. 8

9 Factor 7. Periodization Simply put, periodization is the effective management of the time available for the athlete s preparation. Periodized programs outline training and competitive activities within a logical schedule, in order to bring about optimal improvements in performance at the right times, while minimizing the risks of injury and burnout. Periodized plans connect the LTAD stage of the athlete with the training and development requirements of that particular stage; they also take into account the athlete s own training background and capabilities. Factor 8. Planning the competitive calendar At each stage of the LTAD, sound competitive planning is critical. During the early stages, the development of physical abilities should have priority over competition. However, during the later stages of development, quality competitive opportunities become increasingly important. Factor 9. Systemic integration and alignment LTAD calls for system alignment and integration by bringing together all the stakeholders at regional, provincial and national levels (athletes, coaches, clubs, school sports, recreation, provincial and national organizations) to build a better sport system in Canada. LTAD initiatives and support programs must be designed and implemented with a focus on the needs of athletes, and a commitment to cross-sectorial collaboration and cooperation. Factor 10. Ongoing improvements An athlete development plan should not remain static. Rather, the coaches, athletes, sport scientists, administrators, and policy makers closest to LTAD must constantly seek ways to improve and refine it. 9

10 PART 2: DEMANDS OF TEAM HANDBALL AT THE HIGH- PERFORMANCE LEVEL Athlete profile Handball is a team sport in which two groups of participants test their technical and tactical skills in both offensive and defensive situations, within the limits imposed by the rules. As a result, two fundamental yet complementary facets of the game are constantly at work: attack and defense. For each facet of the game (offense and defense), the development and the mastery of a variety of techniques and tactics are vital to success. However, skills alone are not sufficient to achieve top level performances nowadays: athletes must also exhibit an adequate degree of physical preparation. Depending on their position, Team Handball players can display a wide range of morphological and physiological characteristics. This being said, it remains possible to draw the general profile of a successful international player, based on the demands of the game at that level. As is the case in many other sports, performance in Team Handball is determined by a series of factors which are related to - and even influence - each other: physical abilities, technique, tactical sense, and mental skills. The rest of this section will outline the profile of a successful international-level Team Handball player. Physical demands A) Morphology Including the goalkeeper, a team can have seven players on the court. The requirements of each position are highly specific and this, in turns, influences what might be considered the optimal height and weight. As a general rule, international Team Handball players are tall and powerful. Height is, of course, genetically determined, but it represents a significant asset in modern play. For this reason, body size is a factor, and coaches seek to work 10

11 with relatively tall players whenever the opportunity arises. The player s weight may also become a factor, particularly in the case of the pivot. For this reason, body mass index (BMI) is often taken into account. The following table presents the BMI obtained at each position, based on a sample of international male and female players: Men: Goalie Defense Wing Pivot Half-centre Height (cm) Weight (kg) BMI 25,25 25,48 25,42 27,07 25,77 Women: Goalkeeper Defense Wing Pivot Half-Centre Height (cm) Weight (kg) BMI 23,67 22,72 21,11 23,84 21,71 This being said, there seems to exist an even more relevant variable to consider: the ratio body mass/height which provides a roughness or ruggedness index. Body weight x 1000 / Height = Roughness or ruggedness index The closer the roughness or ruggedness index is to 460 the more likely the player is to perform at a high level. 11

12 Arm span is another important morphological variable, as it has a direct impact on the power and velocity of shots: the longer the arm, the longer the radius of the arc generated when shooting, and therefore the greater the acceleration imparted to the ball. Long limbs are also advantageous for the goal keeper, as this allows him/her to cover more space in the net. Arm span is determined as follows: the player stands with his or her back to a wall, and with the arms stretched horizontally. A partner then measures the distance from the tip of one middle finger to the other. In elite males, arm span is on average 187,93 ± 7,32 cm, with some variation according to the players position. Lastly, hand size is another morphological factor that may impact performance: indeed, the larger the hand, the easier it is for the player to grab the ball and to handle it during play. This variable is measured as follows: the player places the dominant hand on a flat surface, and stretches the fingers as much as he or she can; a partner then measures the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the little finger. In elite players, this measurement ranges from 22 to 24 cm in males, and 19 to 22 cm in females. B) Suppleness (Flexibility) Elite handball players show a high degree of suppleness and, as is the case in every sport, this ability gets developed in a way that is highly specific to the discipline. As a general rule, Team Handball players display: a wide range of motion in the shoulder of the dominant arm, which is useful when shooting (i.e., more options and greater power); and good lateral flexion of the spine, which allows them to execute various types of shots with the trunk bent sideways (e.g., sidearm shot) In the case of goalkeepers, one also generally observes the ability to spread the arms and the legs very wide when jumping forward towards a shooter. Joint mobility or flexibility are often used as synonyms for suppleness. The mobility of an articulation (i.e., the degree with which it works ) and the ability to stretch the related muscles, tendons, ligaments and cartilage, are subcategories of the general concept of mobility. This represents a prerequisite for the correct execution of movements. The development of a Handball-specific 12

13 mobility has positive repercussions on the athlete s performance, as this allows him or her to generate more power (speed-strength) and enhances the execution of specific skills or techniques during play. C) Athletic abilities From an athletic point of view, high-level Handball players tend to exhibit high levels of: Quickness Power Endurance Quickness: Players must be able to perform specific actions very fast. Power: In order to achieve a high degree of power when shooting and a good height when jumping, the player s speed must be coupled to his/her strength and agility. According to James C. Radcliffe (High Powered Plyometrics, 1999): Power = Speed x Strength x Agility. Endurance : in order to sustain the required intensity for the entire duration of the game and delay the onset and the negative effects of fatigue on performance, the players energy systems must be developed to an optimal level. During a game, Team Handball players must perform many short and explosive efforts (300 +, see Table 2 in Appendix), followed by less intense periods during which recovery is possible. The duration of these high-intensity actions rarely exceeds 2 or 3 seconds and, overall, they represent only 10% or so of total playing time during a game. Nonetheless, the ability to produce such efforts repeatedly is critical to performance, as they coincide with the most critical phases of play (fast breakaway leading to a goal; powerful defensive actions to stop an attacker; etc.). It has been estimated that, because Team Handball players produce so many high-intensity short bouts of effort, they work at an intensity of approximately 13

14 92% of their VO 2 max for 5 to 10 minutes during a typical game (Figures 2 and 3 in Appendix). For this reason, players must seek to improve both their maximal aerobic power (MAP) and their capacity to sustain and to repeat high-intensity efforts throughout a game. To do so, they must improve their capacity to recover quickly from repeated explosive efforts, despite the fact that, during play, conditions may not be conducive to a complete recovery. Data obtained in competitive situations indicate that the average heart rates are fairly close to the concept of anaerobic threshold (see Figure 3 in Appendix). This might suggest that training aerobic endurance at this particular intensity, as many endurance athletes do, could be useful. However, this would be misleading, as players rarely work at such an average intensity over an extended period during a game: rather, they work at higher or lower intensities most of the time. For this reason, and perhaps with the exception of young players and those who show very low levels of fitness, the development of aerobic stamina should not represent a major training objective. Indeed, the average intensity of typical Team Handball workouts should be sufficient to develop this performance factor to a suitable level in the long term. Lastly, Table 2 in Appendix shows that blood lactate levels measured during a Team Handball game are similar to (or even less than...) concentrations typically reported as a result of an effort at 100% of VO 2 max (8-10 mmoles). This is far from the values obtained in events where the lactic system is the primary factor determining performance (e.g., 400 m race in Track & Field), and where values often exceed mmoles. Even though the repeated short and explosive efforts performed in Team Handball are clearly supramaximal, the relatively low contribution of the lactic system can be explained by (1) their short duration (less than 10 seconds) and (2) their intermittent nature, which allows for lactic acid to be removed and metabolized quickly, thus preventing high concentrations to accumulate in the blood. For these reasons, it does not appear relevant to assess nor to train specifically the anaerobic lactic system of Team Handball players: work done to improve maximal aerobic power should be sufficient to develop energy production through the lactic metabolism. This being said, it is important to keep in mind that each athlete responds differently to efforts that lead to the production of lactic acid: the more the athlete s muscles feature a high proportion of Type IIb fibers, the more lactic acid he or she will tend to produce when exercising at high intensity, and vice versa. 14

15 Given the previous descriptions, it can be concluded that all three energy systems play a role in Team Handball. A brief description of each follows. Anaerobic Alactic System Efforts lasting 1 to 15 seconds This energy system comes into play in the following game situations: shooting, jumping, one-on-one situations, acceleration phase during a fast break, and defensive actions between the 6- and the 9-m lines. Because such efforts are for the most part intermittent and their length shorter than 10 seconds, and because many must be performed during a typical game, Team Handball players must seek to develop both the power and the endurance of their anaerobic alactic system. Anaerobic Lactic System Efforts lasting 15 seconds to 2 minutes During a high-level competition between evenly matched teams, there will likely be several instances during which efforts will have to be sustained for longer than 10 seconds. For instance, this would be the case if there were a series of fast breaks followed by back-checking and dynamic defensive actions with limited recovery opportunities in-between. In such cases, the anaerobic lactic system would come into play. Aerobic System Efforts lasting 2 minutes and more Aerobic stamina allows a player to sustain a relatively high pace for extended periods, as is sometimes required during play. As a minimum, the VO2 max of a high-level male Team Handball player should be 60 ml/kg/min (Approche du Handball, June 1995). At this level of competition, heart rates values measured during play often reach values ranging between 150 and 200 beats per minute (M. Nedef cited by Yourtchenko). 15

16 D) Motor Abilities In order for players are to achieve and be successful at the highest levels of competition, a sound psychomotor development is critical throughout childhood (i.e. until the age of 12 or so). Fundamental movement abilities are important to: Acquire a good dynamic balance, which will allow the player to run, change direction, and jump effectively. Develop dexterity, which is a prerequisite to acquiring effective ball handling skills. Develop the ability to perform distinct actions simultaneously with the upper and the lower body, for instance running and throwing, or running and catching. Feel, adjust, and control the amount of tension in the hands while performing specific actions with the ball, for instance relaxing when the ball comes into contact with the hands, and increasing the amount of tension when shooting. Feel the rhythm of certain game actions in which muscle tension may fluctuate quickly during the execution of specific movements. The development of Handball-specific skills will evolve naturally from the fundamental movement skills acquired during childhood: players with a good motor and physical literacy usually exhibit a better technique and superior perceptual abilities. Indeed, a Team Handball player must be perfectly at ease with a ball in his or her hand, control his or her movements at all times, and master a vast repertoire of techniques. In addition, as the player acquires and develops such a range of game-specific actions, he or she will have to execute them faster and in more difficult conditions - for instance, while his or her movements are restricted by the action of defenders. E) Coordination Coordination, or the ability to perform movement correctly and in the right sequence, is governed by the various neuromuscular processes that control and 16

17 regulate movement. This ability allows the player to execute both planned and unplanned actions. There are two aspects to consider: General coordination which is the product of a broad range of motor experiences, and allows the player to be creative while performing a variety of tasks. Specific coordination which is acquired through the sport itself, and allows the athlete to master a variety of techniques and select the ones that are best adapted to the conditions emerging during play. Developing coordination is a complex process which requires to identify the various aspects that need to be developed first, and then establish the proper sequence in which each should be emphasized (e.g., ability to combine different movements, ability to analyze a specific situation, balance, spatial orientation, rhythm, reaction time, and ability to adjust to different situations on an ongoing basis). F) Speed Speed in important both on offense and on defence. According to Frey (1977), speed is the ability to perform specific actions in the shortest possible time, in a given set of conditions; it is determined by both neuromuscular factors and the intrinsic properties of the muscles to generate tension. It is generally agreed that, as a performance factor, speed can only be improved slightly through training, contrary to other factors such aerobic endurance or maximum strength which show a far greater potential of trainability. As athletes get older, speed is also the first performance factor to regress markedly (Hallmann and Hehinger, 1998). G) Speed Strength Speed-strength is perhaps the single most important performance factor in Team Handball. This ability comes into play in all actions involving pushing, shooting, jumping, or an acceleration of some sort (e.g., during a fast break). 17

18 According to Harr (1976), Speed strength is the capacity of the neuromuscular system to overcome a resistance while contracting as fast as possible. And, as said by Werkoshanski, (1992), the strength component of speed-strength becomes progressively more important as the load or the resistance against which the muscles must work increases. VERCHÈRE Marc, Schéma inspiré de H.Muller/ce H) Benefit of testing Talent identification and athlete evaluation represent two topics of interest for coaches. Detection implies a prediction: given a series of relevant performance factors and their associated normative data, it is possible to determine the probability that an athlete may achieve a specific level of performance (John H. Salmela and Guy Régnier, Détection du talent). This being said, it is difficult to put together a series of tests that will predict a player s potential with a high degree of certainty. One limiting factor is the period of life when tests are administered. In addition, while Team Handball is a 18

19 relatively simple game, the relationship between the various factors that support performance is rather complex. Indeed, some factors are primarily determined by genetics, while others can be learned or trained. Moreover, it is possible to assess the potential of certain key performance-related variables early on, but for others that is not the case, and valid data can be obtained only later in the athlete s life. Given the demands of Team Handball, it is relevant to conduct physical evaluations. However, many high level coaches prefer to assess the various offensive and defensive abilities of individual athletes. The sections that follow provide an overview of tests commonly used by Canadian coaches. Physical Tests: The purpose of these tests is to assess the athletes physical capabilities and potential. Several tests are used in order to obtain data on a variety of performance factors such as speed, flexibility, endurance, skill, and strength. Léger Boucher Ball throw 1-kg ball throw Long jump High jump Triple jump Sprints 5 X 30 metres Sprint 30 metres Defensive triangle Over the past few years, a progressive maximal physical test similar to the one developed by Léger and Boucher, but which is based on the dimensions of a Handball court, has been used in France. Psychological tests: The Vienna Test System proposes a range of psychological assessments that make it possible to obtain data regarding an athlete s cognitive potential, his or her personality, as well as a variety of other aspects including concentration, cue reading, decision-making abilities, motivation, stress management, and ability to cope with frustration. 19

20 TECHNICAL AND TACTICAL DEMANDS Team Handball has evolved considerably over the past decades, and has become an increasingly fast and spectacular game. We now see a wider range of techniques and tactics performed at dazzling speeds, and players display unprecedented levels of skills and power when they attempt to overtake an opponent or shoot on goal. At the highest levels, Team Handball is characterized both by its fast pace and the technical proficiency of the players, who are more powerful and athletic than ever before. The physiological demands of high performance competition are determined by factors such as the rules of the game, the format and scheduling of competition, the overall number of games, the opponents style and level of preparation, as well as the general trends outlined above. As a result of these factors, games are now being played at a higher intensity and, to be successful on the international scene, players must constantly work at the limit of their potential. Technique High level Team Handball players display a vast technical repertoire which is supported by abilities such as coordination, balance, agility, as well as quick reaction times and high speeds of execution. The ball must never become a distraction, and the athlete must be able to move quickly in any direction with or without it. The better the player is technically, the easier it becomes for him or her to read cues and make decisions in game-like situations: indeed, he or she no longer has to pay attention to the execution component, and can therefore focus on how the play is evolving. Such a high degree of handball-specific motor skills allows the player to execute complex actions at progressively higher speeds, and in conditions where some constraints may apply - for instance, when movements are restricted by the action of defenders. The following table presents selected indices of technical efficiency during play, and corresponding normative data. 20

21 Indices of efficiency Normative data Average ball losses during a game 4 to 6 Success rate, 6-m shots 65% to 68% Success rate, 9-m shots 55% to 58% Success rate, 7-m shots 90% Success rate, fast break 92% Goalkeeper efficiency (males) 47,7% Goalkeeper efficiency (females) 49,3% BAYER (1993), La formation du joueur 21

22 Tactics Typically, high level players demonstrate a superior game intelligence or game awareness in competition. This is determined primarily by two factors: Very strong perceptual abilities - which allow them to focus on variables other than the ball; in turn, this makes it possible for them to detect relevant cues, and process information concerning how the play is developing quickly and efficiently. An in-depth knowledge of the game - which comes from the experience of having been exposed to a variety of situations, including the most complex ones that can arise during play. As a result, top-level athletes are capable of (1) recognizing specific game situations quickly, and (2) making effective decisions to solve the problems they face during play. PSYCHOLOGICAL DEMANDS Psychological preparation is now considered to be one of the most important factors influencing performance in competitive sport. Not surprisingly, it has become a critical aspect to take into consideration when preparing a team. According to C. Bayer (1993) Team handball players must be combative, show self-control, and be capable of motivating themselves. Combativeness: Players must have a desire to impose their superiority over the opponents, take responsibility for their actions, and be eager to win. Such a high degree of competitiveness should not, however, be confused with uncontrolled aggressiveness. Emotional control: While the athlete must always be ready to produce all-out efforts on the court, his or her emotions must remain under control, and be channeled towards the task at hand. While this ability can be considered the norm at the highest levels, it is rarely so in younger players. Without the ability to manage his or her emotions, a player s skills cannot be fully exploited when he or she is confronted to the stress of competition. Motivation: This is a critical mental ability in Team Handball, and one that players must develop to a high degree in order to progress and achieve top results. Motivation must be intrinsic, that is, it must come from the athlete himself or herself. 22

23 PART 3: REVIEW OF KEY GROWTH AND MATURATION CONCEPTS "The child is not a miniature adult. His or her attitude is not only quantitatively but also qualitatively different from that of an adult. Thus, the child is not only smaller, but also different! {Claparède, La psychologie de l intelligence, Scientas, 1937} Before getting into the various facets of Team Handball training, it appears important to first provide a brief review of some key growth and development concepts. During play, a player s behaviours is influenced by a range of factors (physical: general and specific; technical; tactical; psychological; etc.) as well as by the information and the stimuli he or she is exposed to. Because Team Handball can be considered a late specialization sport, young players must go through a series of stages before reaching the highest levels of competition. Typically, Team Handball players can be considered fully developed around the ages of Taking into account the LTAD 10-year rule regarding the development of international caliber athletes, a child should therefore specialize in the sport around the ages of assuming that he or she has acquired all the general sport skills and abilities during the earlier stages of his/her athletic development. Specializing sooner might be detrimental to the player s progression. When this occurs, the best results are often achieved too early in the athlete s career, performances can be inconsistent, the risks of injuries increase, and the drop-out rate before the age of 18 is often high. Regardless of the sport, a participant should therefore seek to become an all-around athlete before specializing in a particular discipline. It is also important to note that each athlete progresses through the various stages of development at his or her own pace. Consequently, some athletes simply will not fit into the model proposed for their age group. Research has clearly shown that chronological age is not a good point of reference for athlete development models: indeed, between the ages of 8 and 16, skeletal, muscular and emotional development can vary greatly from one participant to another within the same age group. As much as possible, training should therefore be based on the guidelines corresponding to the athletes biological/maturation levels. 23

24 Late specialization sports such as Team Handball benefit from a rather general approach during the first few years of training. Activities must focus on general athletic and motor development, and on the acquisition of basic techniques. Skill training should represent the major component of training until the athlete reaches the period of accelerated growth during puberty. It is also important to stress that athletes must acquire and master certain skills at specific times during their development. Failure to do so, for instance by omitting to recognize certain developmental stages or emphasizing advanced techniques too soon, may prevent the athlete from reaching his or her full potential later thus directly impacting his or her ability to perform in the long term. Growth and development Active child: 0-6 years Children have an innate need to move and play a lot. This allows them to acquire a wide range of motor skills, and to learn through a variety of new experiences. Children aged 0-6 need to perform various types of movements that will stimulate their imagination, and encourage them to run, jump, crawl, climb, or perform any type of action requiring balance. In children, movement can play an important role in the areas of self-esteem and social interaction. Activity time should be relatively short, but repeated often. In young children, physical activity also promotes a sound bone and muscle growth, helps to maintain a healthy body weight, reduces stress, and improves sleep quality. Growth and development FUNdamentals F: 6-8 years / M: 6-9 years - Initiation to Mini-Handball This stage of development is still characterized primarily by fun. Most of the time must be spent on games and activities that promote motor development. During childhood, bones and cartilage are fragile, and can be damaged if exposed to excessive mechanical stress and tension. Some strength training can be done, but loads must be light, thus allowing a high number of repetitions to be performed. Around age 8, muscle mass only represents 27% or so of the child s total body weight. It is therefore unproductive to do extensive strength training. Rather, the emphasis should be on the development of quickness in the hands and in the feet two performance components that are highly important in Team Handball as 24

25 well as on coordination, agility, and balance. Some flexibility training can also be included, but progressively and in moderation. Growth and development Learn to Train F: 8-11 / M: 9-12 years Category Minime From ages 8 to 11 (girls) and 9 to 12 (boys), children are ready to begin training based on more conventional methods. This period covers the few years before the rapid growth phase (or peak height velocity) that occurs during adolescence. This being said, training should still focus on general sport skills. This period coincides with an accelerated development of coordination and fine motor skills, so this is the perfect time to work on basic techniques. It is also important to introduce aerobic training at that time, for instance through various forms of relay games, and to prioritize flexibility training. The development of the brain is almost complete in terms of size and complexity, and the child is therefore capable of performing more advanced cognitive tasks. The end of this period corresponds to the first stage of puberty, and is characterized by important changes in the child s body size (height, weight, body fat). Train to train F: 11 to 15 / M: 12 to 16 years Categories Benjamin and Cadet This is the period during which sexual maturation occurs progressively. It is characterized by significant gains in muscle mass and, as a result, the athlete can begin a more systematic training of performance factors such as strength endurance, maximum strength, and speed strength. Activities aimed at developing both aerobic and anaerobic alactic endurance can be integrated progressively into the athlete s program, and anaerobic lactic power training can also be initiated. The development of flexibility should remain a priority in order to account for the rapid growth of bones, tendons, ligaments, and muscles. This period is also ideal for players to work on abilities such as spatial orientation, as well as cue reading and decision-making - which both relate to the tactical aspects of the game. During this period, a greater emphasis should be given to psychological preparation, in particular to aspects such as focus and control of 25

26 distractions. The range of ages used to define this particular period typically reflects the beginning and the end of the growth spurt. Growth and development Train to Compete F: 15 to +/ 21 years / M: 16 to +/- 23 years And Train to Win F: 18 years and + / M: 19 years and + This is the time when athletes of both genders tend to specialize in one sport and at a specific position. Those who have the potential to perform at higher levels of competition also begin training on a year-round basis in programs featuring increased volume and intensity. All performance factors must be carefully planned, and periodized in a way that promotes optimal development and recovery. Growth (height) As children and adolescents get taller, their muscle mass, and therefore their strength, increases. At age 8, muscle mass represents approximately 27% of the child s total body mass. At age 15, this proportion reaches about 33%, while in adults it is on average 40%. 26

27 Guidelines : Growth and Development Age (years) Athletic Abilities Aerobic Endurance (prolonged efforts) Aerobic Power (5-15 min efforts at higher intensities,) F M F M Speed-Endurance F M Strength-Endurance F M Maximum Strength F M Speed-Strength (Muscular Power) F M Flexibility/Suppleness F M Speed - Efforts lasting 8 sec or less Speed - High Frequency of Movements Coordination/Agility Balance F M F M F M 27

28 Basic Techniques F M More advanced Techniques Tactics and Decision- Making F M F M Optimal training period Training should be avoided Can be trained, but moderately Can be trained as required by the sport Improvements may be observed through training, yet this factor should not be emphasized 28

29 PART 4 FRAMES OF REFERENCE This section of the long term development plan deals with the critical factors and components that should be emphasized at each stage of the model. This represents, in a way, a series of prescriptive guidelines aimed at providing participants with the best possible programs and support, given their needs. For each stage of the model and for each category of players, a series of physical, technical, tactical, and psychological objectives will be delineated. In addition, Handball-specific training components such as volume, intensity, training to competition ratio, as well as the qualifications of coaches and officials will be outlined. Team Handball can be introduced to children as early as the second cycle of elementary school (grades 4 and up). The first contacts with the game should focus on basic aspects such as running, jumping, throwing, and catching. Some simple forms of ball handling can also be dealt with. Because Team Handball is a sport whose overall demands are rather complex for very young children, initiation to the game is best done at the Learn to Train stage of the LTAD model (roughly, 9 years of age). This being said, the Active Child and the FUNdamentals stages are both very important to the overall development of young athletes. Indeed, they play a critical role in the acquisition of basic motor skills - which is essential for learning more complex movements and techniques later on. 29

30 Stage of Development: Active Child Between ages 0 and 6, children must be initiated to various types of un-structured games featuring various types of movements, and involving all parts of the body. This stage is important for the overall development of the child. Through such activities, the child will develop his or her coordination, general motor skills, leadership abilities, and imagination, while also experiencing a range of emotions. Fun must be an integral part of all the games in which children are involved, as this will plant the seed of a life-long love of physical activity. Due to its complexity, Team Handball cannot be introduced to children of this age group; however, if well integrated, basic movements such as running, jumping, and throwing will facilitate the acquisition of various Handball-specific skills later on. Typical chronological ages F and M: 0-6 Key words General objective(s) Category Fun To learn fundamental movements through play. N/A Objectives - physical Objectives - technical N/A Objectives - tactical Objectives - psychological Training volume Annual/seasonal/weekly Volume and level of competition Training:Competition ratio Required qualification - coaches Required qualification - officials Peripheral support services 30

31 Stage of Development: FUNdamentals During the FUNdamentals stage, the focus must be on motor learning. Children must be involved in a wide range of fun activities that will help them develop basic motor skills. Such skills are critical to the future stages of athletic development, and the best time to work on them is between ages 6 and 9. Unfortunately, this stage is often overlooked. Throughout this stage, programs and activities must continue to focus on fun, and formal competitions are clearly not a priority. Rather, competition should be introduced very gradually and represent only a small component of the programs; the focus must remain participation and initiation to various sport activities. In addition to motor development, another key goal at this stage is to instill a love and an interest for sport and physical activity that will remain with the child for the rest of his or her life. Typical chronological ages Key words General objective(s) Category Objectives - physical F ( ) M ( ) General development Initiation to and development of motor skills Atoms (Minime) To develop basic sport skills (running, jumping, throwing) To acquire fundamental motor skills (agility, speed, coordination, balance) To develop general fitness through games featuring speed, power, endurance, and flexibility components. To initiate participants to basic ball handling skills. Objectives - tactical Objectives - technical To introduce the key rules of the game. To initiate participants to basic Handball techniques through various forms of adapted games and activities. To initiate participants to dribbling. To emphasize correct execution. Objectives - psychological To develop self-esteem through positive feedback. To learn the importance of working hard while having fun. To instill the love of sport. 31

32 Training volume Annual/seasonal/weekly A season typically lasts a few weeks (up to a few months) No periodization whatsoever at this stage 2 Handball sessions per week, and 2 sessions featuring other sports Volume and level of competition Some forms of low-level local or regional competitions Training:Competition ratio Required qualification - coaches Required qualification - officials Peripheral support services Community sport - Initiation / Competition - Introduction Competition - Introduction n/a 32

33 Stage of Development: Learn to Train The focus of this stage is to provide participants with the opportunity to acquire general sport skills that are essential to a sound athletic development. Basic Team Handball skills should also be introduced, but children should still participate in other sports. Children of this age group love to apply what they learn and to measure their progress. Handball-specific skills must be learned correctly right from the start, and children should have the opportunity to play at every position. Typical chronological ages Key words General objective(s) Category Objectives - physical F ( ) M ( ) Introduction To learn the basics skills of Team Handball, as well as the skills of other sports Minime To develop general fitness. The primary physical abilities to develop through training should be: Stamina Strength (using exercises with own body weight) Speed and reaction time Flexibility To acquire a sound running technique. To become familiar with basic ancillary training components (warm-up; cooldown; stretching; etc.) Objectives - technical To learn various types of shots: basic (overhand) shot; jump shot; running shot; sidearm shot, and to emphasize a sound technique with the dominant arm To expose players to various forms of defensive systems: 6-0 / 5-1 / 4-2 / 3-2-1/ To learn the basics of counter-attacks (speed) To develop a good sense of timing To develop the ability to execute quick changes of direction while running 33