Combating Illegal Drug Trafficking in Suriname: an Uphill Battle

Transcription

1 Combating Illegal Drug Trafficking in Suriname: an Uphill Battle Individual Study Project to receive the Masters Degree of Public Administration in Governance Student name : Merrelynn Simone Hasselbaink Student number : FHRISS Supervisor : Dr. Karin Arts Date : November, 2012 Word Count: Institute of Social Studies F.H.R. Lim A Po Institute for Social Studies

2 Combating Illegal Drug Trafficking in Suriname: an Uphill Battle 1

3 Table of Contents List of Acronyms 5 Page Acknowledgements 6 Disclaimer and Information 7 Chapter 1 Introduction of the Research General Introduction Background Indication of the Research Problem Research Objective Research Question and Sub-questions Relevance and Justification Research Methodology and Structure Limitations and Practical Problems 15 Chapter 2 Combating Illegal Drug Trafficking in the Western Hemisphere Introduction The Evolutionary Concept of Security National Security as a Public Good The Globalization of Security National Implementation of International Obligations A Comprehensive Governance Approach Conclusion 25 2

4 Chapter 3 The Position of Suriname in Combating Illegal Drug Trafficking Introduction The Regional Struggle to Cope with Illicit Drug Trafficking Suriname s National Security Policy The International Regional, Bilateral and National Arrangements of Suriname to Combat Illegal Drug Trafficking Conclusion 34 Chapter 4 Improvements and Constraints in Tackling Illegal Drug Trafficking in Suriname Introduction The Uphill Battle in Tackling Illegal Drugs in Suriname Coordination and Joint Operations Undertaken to Tackle Drug Trafficking Limitations in the Joint Cooperation Current Status of Suriname with regards to Implementing Regional and International Conventions into National Legislation Improvements and Setbacks in Tackling Illegal Drug Trafficking Conclusion 45 Chapter 5 Conclusions and Recommendations 46 Reference list 50 Annex 1 International, Regional, Bilateral Conventions and National Legislation related to Drug Trafficking 59 3

5 Annex 2 Interview Question Sheet 62 4

6 List of Acronyms CARICOM CICAD DEA INCB NGOs OAS SALW TOC UN UNGA UNODC US : Caribbean Community : Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission : Drug Enforcement Agency : International Narcotics Control Board : Non-Governmental Organizations : Organization of American States : Small Arms and Light Weapons : Transnational Organized Crime : United Nations : United Nations General Assemble : United Nations Organization for Drug Control : United States 5

7 Acknowledgements The course Master of Public Administration in Governance at the FHR Lim A Po Institute for Social Studies has been a true learning experience, but also an emotional rollercoaster that affected my life in many ways. Although many people supported me throughout this process, I express my sincere appreciation to my colleagues and my former chief at the Ministry of Defense, drs. Justus Hew A Kee for supporting me until the end. I would also like to thank my MPA V girls Sharon, Melisa and Caroline for their support and interventions when I needed it the most. To my supervisor dr. Karin Arts, I express my gratitude for her guidance and feedback in editing and reviewing my paper. Most of all I would like to thank my life partner Issy Joeroeja, my mother Joyce Hasselbaink and sister drs. Cheryl Jacott-Daal MPA for their love, support and patience. To my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ be the glory for giving me the strength, perseverance, knowledge and guidance. Thank You Lord! 6

8 Disclaimer and Information This Master s thesis completes the Masters of Public Administration Program in Governance from the F.H.R. Lim A Po Institute for Social Studies in Suriname in collaboration with the Institute of Social Studies in the Netherlands. Since transnational organized crime has my special attention, I decided to conduct my research on one of its threats, namely illegal drug trafficking. In this respect, the paper will analyze the uphill battle that Suriname is fighting to tackle illegal drug trafficking. Thus, aspects such as the extent to which Suriname is able to live up to regional and international obligations and what can be done to increase its compliance record, were looked into. In order to have a better understanding of this phenomenon, literature was reviewed and information regarding the experience and working knowledge from different Surinamese officials was gathered. Both the literature and informants provided many insights into the problem and helped to generate answers to the research questions and provided some useful recommendations. However, simple interventions and solutions on the side of the government are still a challenge. 7

9 Chapter 1. Introduction of the Research 1.1. General Introduction Despite the relative economic stability of many countries in the Western Hemisphere, the national security aspect of several states is weak (Verassamy, 2009:71). In fact, this region is fighting an uphill battle with an enemy that is difficult to defeat. This enemy is the non-state actor involved in illegal drug trafficking, which is described as one of the most severe threats to security in the Western Hemisphere (OAS, 2007 cited in Verassamy, 2009:72). Illegal drug trafficking can be defined as the illegal sale, production, transport, movement, and distribution of illegal drugs and controlledsubstances attained through unlawful means ( Criminal Attorney Organization, n.d.). This form of transnational organized crime (TOC) 1 has a far-reaching impact on citizens safety and security within the Americas and the Caribbean and even caused a violence spiral which annually claims thousands of human lives (National Anti-Drug Council, 2011:6). Due to the transnational characteristics, social impact and violent activities that illegal drug trafficking brings along, a well coordinated national, regional, and international approach, which compels countries and security agencies towards closer cooperation on every possible level, is of utmost importance (The Economist, 2008 cited in Verasammy, 2009:72). In this respect, Suriname- as part of both the Americas and the Caribbean (Western Hemisphere), - has ratified relevant international, regional and bilateral conventions and participates in international and regional drug policy forums. However, living up to the obligations laid down in conventions is not always easy for a developing country like Suriname, due to various aspects including a lack of effective 1 Transnational organized crime refers to those self-perpetuating associations of individuals who operate transnationally for the purpose of obtaining power, influence, monetary and/or commercial gains, wholly or in part by illegal means, while protecting their activities through a pattern of corruption and/ or violence, or while protecting their illegal activities through a transnational organizational structure and the exploitation of transnational commerce or communication mechanisms (National Security Council, n.d.). 8

10 government action (e.g. with regards to domestication of conventions into national legislation), but also as a consequence of aspects that are in part beyond government control (such as the creativity of criminal networks and corruption) (Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, 2012:n.p.). 1.2 Background Drugs such as cocaine, heroin, crack, methamphetamine, marijuana and ecstasy, are popular among drug dealers and users (National Anti-Drug Council, 2005:5-7). They are all illegal with respect to cross border trafficking, but the use of some of them is tolerated to a certain extent in countries such as the Netherlands (Trimbos Institute, 2007:18). Since drug trade in the Western Hemisphere (and thus Suriname) is mostly related to cocaine, the focus of this paper will primarily be on the battle against this type of drug. The South-American countries Columbia, Peru and Bolivia are well known for their drug related activities. These countries have been the main cultivators of the coca bush for over a thousand years (O Brien, 2002:30). The use of coca leaves is deeply embedded in these societies since the native Indian ancestors used the leaves for medical and religious purposes. Cocaine, the white powdered drug extract from the coca leave, is the main problem drug in the Western Hemisphere (Ibid). Since drug cultivation has been a way of living for these societies, it is very difficult for the governments in these countries to conduct successful measures to tackle the coca cultivation and eradicate drug trafficking. The coca leaf cultivation in these countries still accounts for 98% of the global cultivation (Ghodse, 2010:39). The cultivated drugs are processed, and smuggled to different countries throughout the world (UNODC, 2011:37). Ever since the 1980 s, the aspect of illegal drug trafficking in Suriname received international media coverage. During this period transnational drug organizations placed Suriname on the map as a drug (cocaine) transit country. Together with other states in 9

11 the Caribbean, Suriname became a connection between the drug producing and drug consuming countries (National Anti-Drug Council, 2005:7). In other words, between countries such as Columbia, Peru and Bolivia on the one hand, and the US and Europe on the other hand. The means of transportation are usually small vessels, cargo ships, small airplanes and commercial airlines (National Anti-Drug Council, 2005:7). Smuggling drugs in fruits, vegetables, luggage with a double bottom, diapers, or drugs processed in clothes, taped to people s bodies or swallowed by drug couriers (human mules) in small packages are also some of the inventive ways that drug dealers use in their attempt to transport their goods beyond national borders (Suridin, 2002:17-18). Illegal drug trafficking has dramatically risen in the Western Hemisphere and there has been an increase in brutality associated with this crime (Verasammy, 2009:74). As a matter of fact, drug criminals in the Western Hemisphere have been known to own more sophisticated and modern resources, technology and communication equipment than the police and military. The technology is used to maintain contact with their organizations and keep up with law enforcement counter-measures (CARICOM, 2002 cited in Verasammy, 2009:73). This makes it difficult for the police to curb drug trafficking without the assistance of other security forces. Therefore, the military are put into action to counter or assist the police in countering this security threat. The aforementioned method of joint cooperation among security institutions is also applied in Suriname, due to the specific military skills (such as knowledge of the jungle) that are necessary to tackle this crime (Verasammy, 2009:74). Although the International Narcotics Control Strategy Report argues that there is little evidence of drug production in Suriname (Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, 2012:n.p.), it is important to note that in 2003 the biggest ecstasy laboratory in the Caribbean was found in a house in a relatively sophisticated neighborhood in the Capital Paramaribo (Caribbean Net News, 2004). 10

12 1.3 Indication of the Research Problem Although marihuana is the oldest and most consumed drug in Suriname, cocaine is the most popular one due to the demand and supply factor that is related to large sums of money and power (National Anti-Drug Council, 2005:5-7). As a consequence of these factors, drug traffickers continuously find new means to deliver their goods. In addition, drug trafficking is not the only criminal or illegal activity that transnational drug organizations are conducting. These organizations also have an influence on illicit trafficking in Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW also known as firearms), which are exchanged for drugs (Diálogo, 2012:46). Furthermore, aspects such as trafficking in persons, money laundering and corruption are also means for the drug dealing organizations to expand their profits (Verasammy, 2007:72-73). As part of the international community, Suriname is also exposed to these threats. The flourishing drug business has even caused discredit for political figures such as the current president Desiré Bouterse and the parliamentarian and former guerilla fighter Ronny Brunswijk. These officials have been accused of drug trafficking by the Netherlands and were sentenced to prison in absence as a result thereof. Since Suriname does not extradite its own nationals, they did not serve their sentence (Griffith, 2011:6, 24). Despite the fact that Suriname ratified bilateral, regional and international conventions and protocols, hosts and attends conferences, and also receives equipment from the United States and other developed countries to deal with aspects of illegal drug trafficking, tackling this phenomenon remains a challenge. Since illegal drug trafficking has political, economic and social implications, it is a challenge to develop an effective governance framework to deal with this issue and fully live up to regional and international obligations. 11

13 1.4 Research Objective The general objective of this paper is to generate awareness with respect to the improvements that Suriname has made and the setbacks that it is facing in its fight against illicit drug trafficking. The academic objectives are: to explain the causes and consequences of this criminal activity; to describe the role of the government in complying with relevant conventions; and to identify measures that can be taken to facilitate the regional and international obligations (specifically focusing on the conventions of the Organization of American States and the United Nations). In this respect, the ultimate objective of this research is to present recommendations that can be applied by the government in order to take more effective measures on tackling illegal drug trafficking and better live up to its obligations. 1.5 Research Question and Sub-questions The Main Research Question is as follows: To what extent is Suriname able to comply with its regional and international obligations on combating illegal drug trafficking and, what could be done to strengthen Suriname s compliance record in this regard? The Sub-questions are: Which threats and challenges is Suriname facing with regards to illegal drug trafficking? What regional and international obligations does Suriname have to combat illegal drug trafficking? Which mechanisms does Suriname have in place to comply with regional and 12

14 international conventions with regards to combating illegal drug trafficking? Which opportunities exist for strengthening Suriname s compliance record in relation to its regional and international obligations to combat illegal drug trafficking? 1.6 Relevance and Justification Although the government of Suriname has expressed its determination to improve the public safety and security in the country by conducting operations that are also focused on tackling illegal drug trafficking and drug related crimes, it still lacks important features that are necessary to improve this effort. The outcome of this research can contribute to re-evaluating the current government s approach Research Methodology and Structure For my research I reviewed academic literature, policy documents and regional and international treaties relevant for my topic. Since my paper mainly focuses on drug related activities from countries in the Western Hemisphere and their impact on Suriname, I limited the data to conventions from the United Nations (UN) and the Organization of American States (OAS). The theories applied in chapter two, provided me with a broader view of the bottlenecks that both Suriname and other countries in the Western Hemisphere are facing in their battle against drug trafficking. In addition, I also analyzed country specific data and conducted interviews with the Police Superintendent, the Chief of Customs, a Police Commissioner, the Head of the Military Special Forces, a military official, a former Minister of Justice and Police and Member of Parliament. The interviews were conducted through a specific list of open questions that was used as a guideline, since every interviewee has its specific role and task in the National Security Policy. The selection of interviewees was based on the 13

15 position and experiences of the actors and their responsibility for providing safety and security within Suriname or advising the government on the means to achieve this goal. Thus, this paper is primarily based on qualitative research since it gives a prominent place to the views and knowledge of interviewees. This is justified by the nature of the topic, which requires full and detailed analysis and concrete contextual and experiential knowledge of the phenomenon and its specific manifestations in Suriname. In order to answer the research question and sub-questions, a specific method and structure was applied. In this respect this paper consists of five chapters. Chapter one contains background information about the phenomenon of illegal drug trafficking and the purpose of conducting research related to Suriname s battle to tackle this crime. The conceptual analytical framework is presented in chapter two. This chapter explains the effects of illegal drug trafficking on national security, the obligation of governments to provide public safety and security, the effects of globalization on drug trafficking, the obstacles as regards the implementation of international conventions through national legislation and the governance approach in relation to tackling drug trafficking. Chapter three consists of a country specific analysis which illustrates how the different theories discussed in chapter two relate to measures conducted in Suriname to tackle illegal drug trafficking, together with the possibilities to increase the country s level of compliance. Chapter four presents the key findings of the interviews. It provides an insight into the improvements in and setbacks for tackling drug trafficking in Suriname. This information enhances the quality of the research since it provides solid linkages between theory and practice. Chapter five concludes the thesis by providing some final remarks and recommendations. The process of gathering information and writing the paper was conducted in approximately six months. 14

16 1.8 Limitations and Practical Problems: When starting this research it was uncertain whether the interviewees would be transparent in sharing information. An interviewee did state something off the record that I considered very useful, and thus wanted to include in my thesis. In order to protect the interviewees and reduce the obstacle of not being able to apply important information since it was presented to me in confidentiality and good faith, I assured them that their name or position would not be used in the text, but that I would refer to an anonymous source. However, most of the interviewees had no objection against their names or position being used as a reference, since they presented facts. Furthermore, I had some doubts about an interviewee holding information back for security reasons. This information was related to the names of conducted drug operations. Rephrasing the question did still not lead to the required results. I maximized the chance of acquiring the information by asking the same question to other interviewees and by consulting literature on the subject. This research then showed that the topic was not a confidential issue since policy documents are available on the internet with this information. In this respect, I did not make myself dependant on the information from one source. 15

17 Chapter 2. Combating Illegal Drug Trafficking in the Western Hemisphere 2.1. Introduction In order to understand the difficulties of combating illegal drug trafficking, and of living up to obligations laid down in international and regional conventions, this chapter will present various relevant theoretical aspects. These include among others: the evolutionary concept of security, security as a public good, globalization, national implementation of international obligations, and the notion of a comprehensive governance approach The Evolutionary Concept of Security Generally speaking, security is the absence of threat- to the stability of states, regions, the global community, networks, and/ or human lives (Jackson, 2008:374). This definition was not always en vogue. Before and during the Cold War, the term security was defined very narrowly. In this period security more or less meant protecting a country against foreign military armed aggression (Giacomo, 1989). Thus, military force was the primary tool to deal with threats to national security (Griffith et al., 1993 cited in Verassamy, 2009:63). However, after the Cold War the necessity to redefine this concept was apparent, partly due to factors such as improvements in information technology, globalization, liberalization, and new security threats and challenges (Verassamy, 2009:65-66). In this respect social, economic and environmental instabilities can also be considered as threats to national security, as well as non-traditional challenges of terrorism, illegal drug trafficking and illicit trafficking in SALW, and also diseases such as HIV/AIDS (Jackson, 2008: ). 16

18 As a result of these changes, military forces are currently not only conducting the traditional defense tasks, but also civil-military operations. These are among others: humanitarian projects such as disaster relief and response and medical assistance, but also assistance to police and law enforcement agencies in tackling aspects of TOC (Rana, 2004: ). The Suriname Armed Forces (SAF) are no exception in this regard. Thus, the concept of national security in 2012 is different to what it was ten or twenty years ago (Cameron & Clegg, 2010:3) National Security as a Public Good Research shows that national security can be categorized as a traditional public good. (David et al., 1999:364). Public goods, [ ] are goods in the public domain: available for all to consume and so potentially affecting all people (Kaul et al., 2003:3). In other words, public goods are non-rival in consumption and [have] non-excludable benefits. [ ] they are often classified as market failures and as justified cases for government intervention (Kaul and Mendoza, 2003:80). According to Mendez (1999: ) the following is applicable to define security as a public good: It is non-rivalry that is, the consumption or enjoying of the protection afforded by national defense to a resident of a country does not detract from another resident s consumption of that protection. The protection is indivisible and its enjoyment by an additional person involves no marginal or additional cost. [National security is also] non-exclusionary [since] no one in the country can be excluded from benefiting from the protection of national defense, regardless of whether he or she contributes to the defense budget. Since providing public safety and security would not be profitable for the private sector as it is impossible to charge the beneficiaries and exclude those who do not pay (Ibid), it is the task of the government to provide national security and cover the expenses 17

19 involved e.g. through taxes generated from the communities that benefit from these goods and services (Ibid). With these taxes, conditions can be created by the government to finance its security policy according to its national interest, and ambitions, existing threats and challenges, and economic-, social- and cultural conditions. Drug trade generates different security threats and challenges for states and societies: even where the state is strong, but when for a variety of reasons the rule of law is already weakened, it can pose a genuine threat to stability (UNODC, 2010:221). The distinction between strong and weak states here lays in the fact that the former [is] able to deliver services to their population, to represent their citizens, to control activities on their territory, and to uphold international norms, treaties and agreements, while the latter provides a breeding ground for international crime (Benn, 2004 cited in Kiely, 2007:173). In strong states that effectively address the needs of their societies, the non-state entities cannot outcompete the state. But in areas of socio-political marginalization and poverty [ ] non-state entities do often outcompete the state and secure the allegiance and identification of large segments of society (Felbab-Brown, 2010:156). In weak states or areas with minimal state presence, the security threat is more apparent due to the fact that people might become dependent on illicit activities, such as drug trafficking (Felbab-Brown, 2010:155). For these people, informal activities become a way of living, the only way to provide themselves with social and economic security even though they remain in a cycle of insecurity and crime (Ibid). In Latin America, criminal organizations provide public goods to a certain extent. Although these organizations are the sources of insecurity and crime, they often regulate the level of violence, suppress street crime such as robberies, theft, kidnapping, and even homicides (Felbab-Brown, 2010:155). In this regard, they generate support from the community which also benefits from the reduced street and common crime in addition to the fact that the reduced crime rate is also good for their illegal business (Ibid). 18

20 Political parties and governments in weak states may also use drug organizations to finance or support their party or government structure. For criminals this is an opportunity to expand their business possibilities, since they do not only want to dominate the society, but also control or at least influence the state and its ruling power arrangements (Felbab-Brown, 2010:156). In order to curb drug trade, it is of utmost importance to address the social and economic reasons why people turn to this crime, including the law enforcement deficiencies. Efforts need to focus on ensuring that people and communities will obey laws by increasing the likelihood that illegal behavior and corruption will be punished [ ], but also by creating the [ ] environment in which laws are consistent [ ], can be seen as legitimate and hence be internalized (Felbab-Brown, 2010: ) The Globalization of Security Globalization is a contested concept in the sense that there is neither a single definition nor any agreement among different authors on whether or not the term provides a useful way of analyzing contemporary global developments (Hirst and Thomson, 1999 cited in Hobden, 2008:54). Giddens provided a neutral analysis of the primary features of globalization. According to this author, globalization is the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa (Giddens, 1991:64 cited in Kiely, 2007:77). Bhalla on the other hand had a positive approach whereby globalization is defined as a force for higher growth and prosperity for most, especially those in the bottom half of the world s population (Bhalla, 2002:11 cited in Hobden, 2008:54). On the contrary, Kiely provided a realistic definition which states that globalization [ ] refers to the flows (people, capital, goods), networks (information, production), institutions (UN, WTO etc.), and challenges (environment, terrorism, poverty), that (supposedly) transcend territory, particularly in the nation-state (Kiely, 2007:79). 19

21 When taking the effect of globalization on transnational organized crime into account, I must agree with Kiely, since this author mentioned both the positive aspects of globalization, and the challenges that it brings along. After all, globalization has not only abolished barriers of communication, opened up global markets and interconnected gateways, but also [created] new criminal opportunities (Jensson, 2011:4). Thus, globalization can have a positive impact on the trade relations between countries, but also on the trade relations among criminals who have learned to maximize their possibilities and profits through this system. While globalization encourages the free movement of goods, people, capital and services beyond national borders, drug traffickers ignore national borders (Ibid: 16). As globalization is causing new trends and creativity among criminal groups, it makes the protection and security of citizens more complex (Simmons & de Jonge Oudraat, 2001:6). Although smuggling illicit goods across national borders is not a new phenomenon, the scale of the problem and the increasing power of organized crime is (Jackson, 2008:382). While TOC is mainly conducted with individual economic motives, it may also threaten individual, national, regional, and even international security. Since drug criminals act in groups or network across borders, there is a similar need for international cooperation to counter these criminal networks and activities (Jackson, 2008: ). In this respect, the international community has made some arrangements to tackle illegal drug trafficking. These arrangements vary from deploying military and police forces, to signing international, regional and bilateral agreements. Despite these efforts, the record of success is fluctuating. As the number of challenges is increasing, state authorities and international organizations realize that tackling these criminal activities requires an even more effective international and multi-agency approach. This however is easier said than done (Simmons & de Jonge Oudraat, 2001:3-8). 20