EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE CHLORINE BANK PROGRAM FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER DISINFECTION IN RURAL HONDURAS

Transcription

1 EVALUATINGTHEEFFECTIVENESSOFTHECHLORINE BANKPROGRAMFORSUSTAINABLEWATER DISINFECTIONINRURALHONDURAS PreparedfortheNewForestsProjectby CarolinaFritz,MichaelHeller,JiheiSong&DaynaWolter GeorgeWashingtonUniversity InternationalDevelopmentStudiesCapstone May7,2010

2 TABLEOFCONTENTS I.OBJECTIVES&METHODOLOGY...4 I.1.OBJECTIVES...4 I.2.METHODOLOGY...4 II.BACKGROUND...5 II.1.WATERSYSTEMSANDCHLORINEUSE:UNDERSTANDINGTHEDIALOGUE...6 II.2.WATERANDPOLITICS:LEGALREFORMSANDTHENEWFRAMEWORKLAW...7 III.FINDINGSANDDISCUSSION...12 IV.CASESTUDIES:COMMUNITYTYPOLOGYINRURALHONDURAS...16 LASTRANQUITAS,LAPAZ:ADEQUATERESOURCESANDMANAGEMENT...17 PIEDRASBLANCAS,VALLE:POORRESOURCES,POORMANAGEMENT...18 LALLAVE,VALLE:POORRESOURCES,GOODMANAGEMENT...18 V.CHALLENGES...20 V.1.COMMUNITY LEVELISSUES...20 V.2.ORGANIZATIONALLEVELISSUESFORAHJASA...21 V.3.NATIONAL LEVEL/STRUCTURALISSUES...21 VI.RECOMMENDATIONS...22 VII.CONCLUSION...25 BIBLIOGRAPHY...26 APPENDICES...28 APPENDIXA FIELDWORKSITEVISITS...28 APPENDIXB LISTOFINTERVIEWEESANDCOMMUNITIES...29 APPENDIXC INTERVIEWQUESTIONNAIRESWITHTRANSLATIONS...30 APPENDIXD SAMPLESURVEY...40 APPENDIXE:CATEGORIESOFWATERSYSTEMSINHONDURAS...46 APPENDIXF.NON CHLORINE BASEDDISINFECTIONMETHODSFORHOUSEHOLDS...46 APPENDIXF.WHO'SCLASSIFIEDWATERSOURCETYPESANDDESCRIPTIONS...47 ENDNOTES

3 MainWaterActorsandAcronyms AHJASA HonduranAssociationofWaterBoards APP AguaParaelPueblo ASCH SavetheChildrenHonduras CONASA NationalWaterandSanitationCouncil CRS CatholicReliefServices ERSAPS PotableWaterandSanitationRegulatoryAgency FHIS HonduranSocialFund IRWA InternationalRuralWaterAssociation MOH MinistryofHealth NFP NewForestsProject NGO Non governmentalorganization NRWA NationalRuralWaterAssociation RAS HON NationalNetworkofW&S SANAA NationalAutonomousW&SService SIAR SistemadeInformaciondeAguaRural USAID UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment W&S WaterandSanitation 3

4 I.Objectives&Methodology I.1.Objectives TheaimofthisstudywastoevaluatetheeffectivenessofChlorineBankprogramsmanagedby theassociationforhonduranwaterboards(ahjasa)increatingasustainablemarketforthe provisionoflow costwaterdisinfectionproductsandservicestoruralhondurancommunities, andtoofferrecommendationsforhowahjasa sworkcanbeimproved. Inordertoaccomplishthis,itisnecessarytounderstandboththemicro leveloperationsas wellasthemacrostructuralissuesatplay,including:1)localdemandforwatertreatment products;2)thecapacityoflocalwaterboardstoeffectivelymanagetheirwatersystemsand providequalitywatertotheirbeneficiaries;3)thecapacityofahjasatofosterandmeetthe demandforqualitywateranddisinfectionproductsandservices;and4)theoverall sociopoliticalandeconomiccontextofruralwatersystemsinhondurasandtheidentified barrierstowatertreatment. Thestudyoutlineskeyfactorsrequiredforwaterdisinfectiontobesustainable,examines AHJASA soverallsuccessincreatingtheseconditions,andanalyzessomeofthecorebarriers andchallengestheorganizationand,morespecifically,itschlorinebankprogramfacein meetingtheirobjectives.theoverarchinggoalistoenablethenewforestsproject(nfp)to identifythebestwaystoinvestinthedevelopmentofasustainablemarketfordisinfection productsinruralhonduras. I.2.Methodology Ateamoffourgraduatestudentsconductedthisstudyusinginterviews,fieldobservation,and areviewofrelevantliteratureandinstitutionaldocuments.researchinthefieldtookplace overaten dayperiodinmarch2010inbothtegucigalpaandninedifferentcommunitiesinthe departmentsoflapaz,valle,elparaíso,andfranciscomorazán(seemap,appendixa). Theteamconductedovertwentyformal,semi structured,andinformalinterviewswithvarious keystakeholders.whileintegucigalpa,theteamperformedin depthinterviewswithstaffat theahjasaheadquarters,governmentofficialsfromwateragenciesconasaandsanaa,and civilsocietygroupsandinternationaldevelopmententitiesincludingaguaparaelpueblo, CenterforAffordableWaterandSanitationTechnology,PureWater,USAID,SavetheChildren, andcare.duringtheguidedtouroflocalcommunities,theteamorganizedsemi structured interviewswithlocalandregionalwaterboardmembers,ahjasastaffinthemarcalaand Nacaomebranches,citymayors,andlocalNGOs.(SeeAppendixBforalistofallinterviewsand communities).moreinformal,butrelevant,conversationswereheldwithanumberof communitymembersencounteredthroughoutthetrip,whichofferedamorerobust understandingofthedifferentproblemsfaced. ThecommunitiesvisitedwereselectedbyAHJASAandrepresentedamixofmembers,nonmembers,successful,andstrugglingcommunitiesindiverseenvironmentalsettingswith uniqueresourcemanagementchallenges.thecommunitiesinlapazandelparaíso,for example,areinmoremountainous,coffee producingzonesandhavesufficientwater 4

5 resources,butwatershedpollutionresultingfromcoffeeprocessingrequiresattention.by contrast,thedepartmentofvalleinthesouthernmostpartofhondurasisrelativelyflat,arid andregularlysuffersseveredroughtduringthesummer(decembertojune).manyofthese communitiesrelyonmoreexpensivepumpsystemsfortheirwaterandarecontinuallypressed tofindnew,increasinglyscarcegroundwatersources. NoraHernandez,thechlorinebankadministrator,plannedthevisitsinadvanceand accompaniedtheteamduringtheguidedtour.whilethisattimesmayhaveinhibitedsome actorsfromfullydisclosingproblemsorcomplaintsandallowedthemtopreparestockanswers, shewasanecessarylinkforaccesstothewaterboardsandotherkeyplayers.moreover,the teamalsobenefitedfromtravelingduringthesummermonths,aftertheharvestseason,which facilitatedgoodparticipationfromthewaterboardsandcommunityactors. Uponarrivingtoacommunity,theteambeganwithsemi structuredsmallgroupinterviews withwaterboardmembers(usuallyincludingthepresidentandtreasurer),followedbysite visitstotheirwatersystems,andonoccasion,visitstothewatersourceandsurrounding watershed.often,thecommunityplumberwouldaccompanythegrouptoexplainthetechnical operationofthesystemanditschlorinatorandgivehisperspectiveonanyaccomplishments andproblemsathand.fieldsitesalloweddirectobservationofhowwellthewatersystems werebeingmaintained(e.g.iftheywerepainted,ifthefencingwassound)andanopportunity toverifythetrainingreceivedandcommitmenttoprovidingqualitywaterservices.thesite visitsalsoprovidedanopportunitytoengageinsideconversationswithwaterboardmembers. ThiswasbeneficialinovercominganybiasintroducedbyNora spresenceandtogainvaluable insights. InterviewswereconductedinSpanish,exceptforafewinstanceswhereNGOrepresentatives spokefluentenglish(seeappendixcfortheinterviewquestions).interviewswere supplementedwithareviewofahjasa srelevantprogrammaticandfinancialdocumentsas wellasextensiveresearchinwater,sanitation,decentralization,andrelatedliterature. Althoughtheteampreparedasurveyforcommunitymembersinordertogathermore quantitativedata,thelimitedtimespentineachcommunityandavailableresourcesprevented itscompletion.however,thesurveyisincludedinthisreportandwillbeprovidedtoahjasain guidingcommunityanalysisanddepartmentalevaluations(seeappendixd). II.Background HondurasisavibrantandecologicallydiverseCentralAmericancountrythatfacesmany challengesasitseekstoimproveitseconomicperformanceandthewellbeingofitspopulation. Thecountryishometoalmost8millioninhabitants,overhalfofwhichareconcentratedin ruralareas. i Nearly60percentofHonduranslivebelowthepovertyline,andthecountryis extremelydependentonitsagriculturalexportsandheavilyexposedtothevagariesofthe worldmarket.honduras humandevelopmentindicatorof0.73currentlygivesitanunenviable rankingof112 th intheworld. ii Pervasiveincomeinequalityandhighratesofun andunderemploymentfuelmigration,especiallytotheus,andremittanceshavebecomeanimportant sourceofincomeformanyhonduranfamilies.thejune2009militarycoupd étatandouster 5

6 ofthen PresidentZelayaledtoviolentprotests,internationalcondemnation,andasevere contractionoftheeconomyfromwhichthecountryhasyettorecover. Ofparticularconcernisthecountry swatersystemascontaminatedwatersourcesareoneof theleadingglobalburdensofdisease.water bornediseasesconstitutethemajorcauseof morbidityandmortalityinhonduras. iii InruralHonduras,thechildmortalityrateundertheage offiveisover40percent,aratethatis1.5timeshigherthanthatofurbanareas(30percent). iv Ofthe6,000childrenunderfivewhodieannually,itisestimatedthat12.2percentaredueto diarrhealdiseases. v Inacountrythathasrecentlybeenravagedbydrought,apoliticalcoup d état,andconsistentlyfacesharsheconomicconditions,diarrheaandotherwater borne illnessesputfurtherstressonthepopulation.ruralcommunitiesingeneralhavelower incomes,moreemigration,andlessconsistentwaterresourcesthanurbanareasinhonduras. Ruralandurbansystemsalikewerehardhitin1998,whenHurricaneMitchcausedthe destructionof1,683ruralwatersystemsleaving75percentofthepopulationwithoutpotable water. vi IntheaftermathofMitch,theinternationaldevelopmentcommunitydispersedaidto Hondurasatarapidpaceandmanynewprogramswerequicklyimplemented.Yetevennow muchofhonduraslacksadequatewaterandsanitationcoverage,especiallyinruralareas(70 percentcoverageforwaterand49.5percentforsanitation). vii Onlyone thirdofrural communitieswithaccesstowatersystemshavecontinuouscoverageandonly14percent regularlychlorinate. viii II.1.WaterSystemsandChlorineUse:UnderstandingtheDialogue Ingeneral,therearethreemainwaysofcapturinggroundorsurfacewatertodistributeto communitiesviapipes:gravity fedsystems,electricormanualpumpsystems,oracombined pumped/gravity fedsystem.thesepipedwatersystemscanbeconnectedtoindividual households,orcentrallylocatedintheformofapublictap.collectedrainwatercanprovidethe mainorsupplementalwatersupplytoaruralarea,aswateriscapturedfromtinroofsinto tanksorinplasticbottlescarefullypositionedamongtrees. Althoughonly14percentofruralwatersystemscurrentlychlorinate,thereismuch documentedevidenceandmanysuccessfuldevelopmentprojectssupportingtheuseof chlorineasacheapandefficientdisinfectant.communitieswithhighlyturbid(cloudy)water aremuchmorelikelytorecognizeaneedforsometypeofintervention.ofcourse,justbecause waterlookscleardoesnotmeanitisdisease free.thereareanumberofharmfulorganisms thatthriveinwater,includingbacteriasuchascholera,salmonellaande.coli;viruseslike HepatitisA;andtheprotozoanparasitescryptosporidiumandgiardia. ix Tohelpeliminatethese contaminantsfromwatersupplies,someformofdisinfectionisnecessary.moreover,standing water,greywatersources(laundry,cookingwaste,human influencedrunoff),garbage,and free roaminganimalscanpresentpossiblesourcesofcontaminationforanysystemandsurface water,soitisimportanttomaintainacleansurroundingarea WhiletheUnitedStatesusesagaseousformofchlorinethatishighlytechnicalanddifficultto operate,hondurasandotherdevelopingcountriesgenerallypromotechlorineformsthatare moreaccessibleandrequirelesstrainingtouse.however,regardlessofthechosenproduct, 6

7 chlorinelevelsmustalwaysbecarefullycontrolledsoasnottocauseunwantedeffectsinodor ortaste,orcreateharmfuldisinfectionbyproductsproducedwhenchlorinereactstoorganic matter,themostcommonofwhicharetrihalomethaneslikechloroform.chlorineisprovento beacheapandhighlyeffectivedisinfectantthatcontrolsmanyvirusesandbacteria,butitdoes notkillallorganisms,suchascryptosporidium.additionally,ifchlorineresiduallevelsarenot maintainedateffectivelevels,thistreatmentisofnouse. x TherearetwomainformsofchlorineusedinwaterdisinfectioninHonduras:calcium hypochloriteintheformofgranulesortablets(65percentchlorine)andsodiumhypochlorite (alsoknownasliquidbleach;consistsof5 15percentchlorine).Somedevelopment organizationssuchascarearemanufacturinghypochloriteonsitebybreakingdownsaltwater throughelectrolysis. xi Ofthesetypes,calciumhypochloritehasalongershelflifeandiseasierto store;howeveritalsoleadstotheprecipitateeffectmentionedearlier,whileliquidchlorine doesnot.themainbenefitofmanufacturingchlorineonsiteisthatitcosts25timeslessthan purchasingtabletsorgranules,thoughithasahighinitialcostandmanufacturesaweaker solutionrequiringclosermonitoring(approximately0.8percent). xii xiii InruralHonduras,therearetwomaintypesofcommunity scalechlorinedisinfectionsystems: dripchlorinatorsandtabletchlorinators.bothofthesesystemsusecalciumhypochlorite.the maindifferenceisthedripsystemusesgranules,whicharecheapertopurchasethantablets andalsomanufactureddomestically.whilethedripsystemisthemostcommoninrural Honduras,thedrawbackistheyarepronetocloggingandbreakeasily,andaredifficultto repair.extratrainingisusuallyneededforthesesystemstoavoidtheprecipitatebuild up problem. xiv Tabletchlorinators,ontheotherhand,areessentiallylongtubesthatholdchlorine asitisdispensedautomaticallyintoawatersupply.theydonotrequireelectricity,andonly dispensechlorineautomaticallywhenwaterisflowingfromthesource,thustheyaredeemed optimalformanyareasinhonduraswherewaterdoesnotflowregularly(especiallyinthedry seasonorinthecurrentdrought).theyhaveproventobeeffectiveinhand pumpsystemsas wellasgravity fedones,andtechniciansonlyneedtocheckthetankweeklyratherthandaily, ascomparedtothedripsystems.thedownsideisthattabletchlorinatordevicesareboth moreexpensivetoinstallandrefill. xv Chlorine smainbenefitisitsfunctionalityatthesourceaswellasatthehouseholdlevel.the long termriskofbladdercancerassociatedwithlifetimechlorineusepalesincomparisonto theriskofdeathduetodiarrhea.ultimately,itisimportantthatahjasaandotheractorsinthe W&Ssectorscollaboratecloselywithdevelopmentorganizationsandengineerstokeepupwith thelatesttechnologiesandtrainingmethodstoensuresafetystandardsaremetifchlorineis thechosentreatmentintervention. II.2.WaterandPolitics:LegalReformsandtheNewFrameworkLaw The2003FrameworkLawforDrinkingWaterandSanitationSector(LeyMarco)mandatedthat thenationalgovernmentalwaterandsanitationbureaucracy(sanaa)undergoaprocessof decentralizationinordertoimprovethemanagementofwatersystems.thelawplaced responsibilityformanagementwithmunicipalities,andsanaawastobecomeatechnical secretarytoanewgoverningbody,conasa,andanewregulatoryentity,ersaps. xvi CONASA 7

8 wastotakeontheroleofadministrativemanagementandheadplanning,policy making, settingstandardsandfundingresearchinthew&ssector.thislawultimatelysoughtto improveserviceefficiency,coverage,operationandmaintenanceofthesectorbyenabling municipalitiestomakethebestdecisionsforcommunitieswithintheirjurisdiction. xvii Whilethisdecentralizationprocesswastobecompletedby2008,ithasyettobefully implemented.oneofthemainreasonsforthisdelayinservicetransferisthatmost municipalitieslackthetechnical,financialoreconomiccapacitytomanagetheirownsystems, andthecentralgovernmentisnotprovidingfundingortrainingforthis. xviii Inaddition,there wasnodirectgovernmentaldecreetotransferadministrativepowertoalternategoverning bodiesandsanaahasnotwantedtovoluntarilygiveupthisresponsibility.conasaonly recentlyreceiveditsownofficespacein2010,andsanaastillholdssubstantialpoliticaland institutionalpower. xix ThereisalsogreatdisjunctionbetweenSANAA,CONASA,theMinistryof Health(MOH)andothergovernmentalbodiesthatareinchargeoftheW&Ssectors,creating seriousproblemsincentralsupportforandadministrationofservices. xx Responsibilitiesare particularlyunclearbetweenmohandsanaa,makingitdifficultforlower level administrationstoworkinanefficientmanner. Inruralareas,thelawsupportedtheformationofcommunitywaterboards(juntasdeagua)as legalauthoritiesthatcouldindependentlymanagetheirlocalwatersystems.thislawwas followedbythe2006regulationofwaterboards,whichcreatednormsandguidelines regulatingtheformationanddutiesofthewaterboards.thoughcommunitywaterboards existedsincethe1990s,theselawsgrantedthemtheopportunityforlegalrecognition,official authority,andownershipoverthewatersystems.currently,thereareover5,000ruralwater systems,butonlyafractionofwhichhaveorganizedwaterboards. Waterboardsshouldconsistof5to7communitymemberswhoserveintheirelectedpositions fortwo yearterms. xxi Waterboardsusuallyconsistofapresident,vice president,treasurer, fiscalofficer,twospeakers,and/oralternates.whilehistoricallythesepositionshavebeen male dominated,womenareincreasinglytakingleadershiproles,andmanyngosarehelping promotegenderequity.womenareespeciallyimportantascommunitydecision makers becausetheyareoftenresponsibleforhealthdecisionsatthefamilylevelandareinchargeof raisingchildren.oneofthekeyrolesoftheboardisincalculatingcommunitywatertariffsand collectingthesetariffsforsystemoperation,maintenance,andeventually,replacement. II.3.HonduranAssociationofWaterBoards(AHJASA) TheHonduranAssociationofWaterBoards(AHJASA)isanon profitnon governmental organization(ngo)thatprovideseducationalandtechnicalsupportservicestolocalwater boardsforthesustainablemanagementoftheirwatersystems.ahjasaalsoprovideslow cost legalandadministrativeassistancetowaterboardsseekingtogainofficiallegalrecognition, whichisimportantforreceivingfundingsupport.theorganizationwasfoundedin1990asa resultofapartnershipbetweentheinternationalruralwaterassociation(irwa)andagua ParaelPueblo(APP),alocalHonduranNGO.Itwasinitiallyformedby17communitieswho decidedtoorganizeasanassociation,buthassincegrowntoamembershipofover800 communitiesinelevenofeighteendepartments(atlántida,colon,franciscomorazán,lapaz, Olancho,Yoro,SantaBarbara,ElParaiso,Valle,Choluteca,andIntibucá)in2009. xxii 8

9 AHJASA scentralmissionistoempowerwaterboardmembersandcommunitiesto independentlyandsustainablymanagetheirwatersystemsandprovideefficientandquality waterservices.theassociationguidesitselfbyaparticipatorydevelopmentapproachthat emphasizestheactiveengagementandcollaborationofbeneficiariesinstrengtheningtheir administrative,financial,andtechnicalskills,findingsolutionstotheirwaterproblems,reducing theirdependenceonexternalactors,andbecomingprotagonistsoftheirowndevelopment process.asthedirectorofthechlorinebankprogramsaidtous, Ineffect,ifwearesuccessful atstrengtheningacommunity,thenitmaychoosetopursueitscommunitygoalswithout embracingahjasa;thisisariskwerun. xxiii Followingtheseprinciples,AHJASAisorganizedasademocratic, bottom up, membershipbasedstructure.atitsbasearelocalwaterboardsthatpayasymbolic,three lempira membershipfee($0.16usd).localwaterboardsarethenorganizedintosector,municipal, and/ordepartmental levelassociationswiththeirownelectedboards.delegatesfromthese participateinanannualgeneralassemblythatelectsanationalwaterboardchargedwith determiningtheassociation spolicydirectivesandsharingbestpracticesandnew technologies.waterboardsfromthelocaltothenationallevelareelectedeverytwoyears.the managementofahjasaisprimarilytheresponsibilityofthedepartmental(andinsomecases municipal)andthenationalboards. AHJASAservesitsmissionbyofferingtechnicalandcapacity buildingassistanceandfunctioning asadistributionnetworkforwaterdisinfectionproductsandservicesthroughthechlorine Bankprogram.In2009,AHJASAhadanannualbudgetofaboutUS$240,000.RoughlytwothirdsoffundingfortheseactivitiescomesfrominternationaldonorsincludingTROCAIRE, InternationalAid,AlianzaporelAgua,WaterAid,PREVDA,andtheSwedishGovernment,while theremainingthirdisderivedfromchlorinebanksalesofwaterdisinfectionmaterialsand services.recently,theorganizationhasdecentralizeditsprocessforsolicitingandmanaging grants,anddepartmentalbranchesofahjasaarenowreceivinggrantfundingdirectly. TechnicalAssistance ThecornerstoneofAHJASA stechnicalassistanceservicesisitscircuitriderprogram,whichhas beeninplacesincetheorganization sfounding.thecircuitriderprogramismodeledafterthe NationalRuralWaterAssociation s(nrwa)programintheus. CircuitridersaretrainedandemployedbyAHJASAtoprovidetechnicalsupportandeducation intheoperationandmaintenanceofwatersystems,guidanceonmanagementissues,and motivationforthecommunitytoparticipateindecision makingprocesses.ingeneral,circuit ridersworkwithaclusterofabout40to50ruralcommunitiesandregularlyvisitthemto inspectthefunctionalityofsystems,monitorwaterqualityanddistribution,trainnewwater boardmembersandpersonnel,reviewfinancialrecords,trackprogress,andaddressany problemspresented.todate,thecircuitriderprogramhashadsuccessinimprovingthe administrationofwatersystemsbylocalcommunitiesandtheirwaterboards,increasing accountabilityandtransparency,andeducatingbeneficiariesabouttheimportanceofquality andsustainablewaterservices. 9

10 Thedeteriorationofthefundingsituationattheendof2009andinto2010duetopoliticaland economicturmoilhassignificantlyreducedthenumberofcircuitridersinoperationtoonlyfour atthetimeofthisstudy,downfromeleventhepreviousyear.inlightoftheselimitations, AHJASAhasidentifiedandtrainedleadersfromlocalcommunitiestoserveassector coordinatorsthattakeontheactivitiesofcircuitriderswithintheirdistrictsandwork collaborativelywiththemandotherlocaltechnicianstoresolveanyemergingproblemsand prioritizevisits.sectorcoordinatorsworkeitherasvolunteersorarepaid,usuallypart time,by AHJASA sdepartmentalormunicipalassociationwithfundsprovideddirectlybycommunities whowanttheadditionalsupport.therewereabout35sectorcoordinatorsin2009. CapacityBuilding AsecondcoreactivitythatAHJASAprovidesisorganizinganumberofworkshops,seminars, andothertrainingeventsdirectedatusers,waterboardsandassociationmembers,and technicians(plumbers,circuitriders,andsectorcoordinators).thesearetailoredtothe respectiveaudience,butusuallyincludemodulessuchas: o Operation,maintenance,andadministrationofwatersystems o Legalrequirements,duties,andstandardsundertheFrameworkLaw o Waterquality,treatment,andmonitoring o Financialmanagement(e.g.bookkeeping,tariffcalculation) o Strategicplanningandevaluationforfinancialandoperationalsustainability o Principlesofgoodgovernance,transparencyandaccountability o Basicsanitation(e.g.useoflatrines,hygiene) o Environmentalissues,includingwatershedprotectionandclimatechange o Participatorydevelopmentandleadershipskills o Genderequity Techniciansusuallygothroughanintensiveformaltrainingandcertificationprocesslasting betweensixmonthstoayearthatincludesboththeoryandpracticeinthefield.usersand waterboardsreceiveformaltraininguponjoiningahjasaandcanrequestadditionaltraining whenneeded(e.g.withtheelectionofnewboardmembers).trainingandeducationisalso providedmoreinformallytocommunitiesduringvisitsbycircuitriders,sectorcoordinators,or otherahjasastaff. AHJASAalsoorganizesdepartmental,national,andCentralAmericanassembliesforwater boardrepresentativestoexchangeideas,sharebestpractices,coordinateactivitieslearnabout newmethodsandtechnologies,andsetpolicypriorities.theseassembliescreatealargescale platformforconscientization thatextendsthedisseminationofknowledgeandactivities,and alsoincludestheparticipationandcollaborationofanumberofpublicandprivatesectoractors involvedinw&sissues. AnIntegrativeApproachforIntensiveAssistance Recently,AHJASAhaslaunchedanewmodelforprovidingcomprehensive,intensiveassistance tocommunitiesthroughthesaleofcapacityandtrainingservices,whichwouldgeneratea sourceofrevenuenotdependentonexternalfunding.one yearintegrativeassistancepackets 10

11 arepromotedamongdepartments,associationsandgroupsof8orsocommunities(a maximumof9,000users),whomustraisesufficientfundstopaythesalaryofadedicated sectorcoordinatorandfortrainings.thepackagesnotonlyprovidethenormaltechnicaland educationsupport,butalsoplacemoreemphasisoncommunitydevelopmentandtargetthe entirecommunitytoparticipateandbecomeincreasinglyinvolvedinkeyissues.thisisgoingto beanimportantnewmodelforahjasatotakeaboard,asintensivetrainingoftheentire communitycanleadtoincreasedinterestnotonlyinwaterservicesbutincommunity developmentandleadership.theultimateideaandhopeisfornewleaderstoemergeandrun waterboardswhilehavingaddedimpactsongovernance,accountability,andtransparency. ChlorineBankProgram Waterdisinfectionisanimportantcomponenttoprovidingqualitywaterservicesandis requiredbylawinhonduras.lackofaccesstoactualsupplies,products,andservicesforwater disinfectionisakeyprobleminpoorqualityofwaterservices.somecommunitiesmusttravel verylongdistancesandatahighcosttoobtainthesesupplies.whilecircuitridersandother programscanteachwaterboardsandcommunitieshowtoproperlymanagetheirwater systems,eventhemostdedicatedeffortslosetheirvalueiftheycannotbuymaterialsneeded totreatthewater.inordertoaddressthis,ahjasahasestablishedachlorinebankprogram thatservesasadistributionnetworkforthesegoodsandservicesintoruralareas,withthe objectivetocreateamarket drivendemandforwaterdisinfectionproducts. FollowingAHJASA sprincipleofreducingdependency,thechlorinebankallowscommunitiesto realizethereisacosttoprovidingqualitywaterandassumetheresponsibilityofthosecosts withintheirtariff.inadditiontosellingproductssuchaschlorine,chlorinators,residual indicators,accessories,accountingsupplies,thebanksalsoprovidetechnicalassistancefor installation,operationofequipmentandmonitoringwaterquality.thebankistheonly distributoroftabletchlorine,whichhastobeimported,plusitalsosellssodium hypochlorite.thecentralchlorinebank,basedintegucigalpa,istheprincipledistributor,and encouragestheformationoflocalchlorinebanks,mainlywithinlocalahjasabranches,to strengthenitsreachintoruralareas.currentlyeightotherregional/municipalchlorinebanks areinoperation,thoughthenumbertendstofluctuateperiodicallywithinterestandfunding. Althoughmembercommunitiesareoftenthemostloyalcustomersasitistheirbank,anyone canmakeapurchase,andclientsincludengos,municipalgovernments,andnon member communities.moreover,thebankofferstechnicalsupporttoeveryonewhohasmadea purchaseandhasrecentlymadethisarequirementofthesale. OfAHJASA stotalbudget,thechlorinebankaccountedforathirdofrevenuein2009,operating ataprofitwhiletherestoftheorganizationoperatedatnetloss.thechlorinebankisprimarily fundedbyproductdonationsandsales;verylittleisallottedthroughinternationalfunding.the centralbankhasonefulltimestaffmemberinchargeofallbankfunctions:makingsales, administeringinventory,andpromotingtheconcept,promotingproducts,andorganizingtours toinstallchlorinators.thebankfacesalotofresourceconstraintsthatlimititsactivities,andit isstilllargelydependentondonationsofproducts,thoughitisnowpurchasinggreater quantitiesofchlorinethanbefore. 11

12 III.FindingsandDiscussion AccordingtoBrand xxiv andreinforcedduringthefieldwork,threefactorsarecriticaltoensure thatruralhondurancommunitiescansustainablyadoptwatertreatmentmethods: 1. Communitiesmustdemandcleanwaterandmakeitapriorityfortheirwellbeing.This entailsnotonlyanawarenessofcurrentwatercontaminationbutalsoan understandingoftheimportanceofconsumingcleanwaterandhowitaffectsthe humanorganism.educationofwaterboardsandsimilareducationcampaignsfor communitiesisofvitalimportanceforthisfirstcomponent. 2. Capacityofcommunitymembersandwaterboardstoadequatelymanagetheirwater systemsisfundamental.thecapacityofahjasaasanorganizationisalsocriticalas AHJASAisinapositiontogreatlyassistcommunitiesbystimulatingawarenessto strengthenwaterboards,promotetreatmentofwater,andprovidetrainingsfor communitymemberssotheycanadequatelymanagetheirwatersystems. 3. Theremustbeaconsistentandreliablesupplychaincapableofmeetingthedemandfor disinfectionproductsandaccessoriesatlow costtolocalcommunities.whenthe supplychainbreaksdown,communitiesthathavebeenfaithfullychlorinatingmaylook elsewherefortheirproducts,stopchlorinating,orconsiderothermethodsof treatment.chlorinebanksareimportantdistributionnetworksthathaveenabled accesstowatertreatmentgoodsandservicestoruralcommunities. Asdescribedearlier,AHJASA sprogramareaspreciselytargetthesethreecomponentsthrough education,technicalsupport,capacitybuilding,andresourceprovision.inthisregard,the organizationplaysavitalroleasaproviderofinformationandeducationandafacilitatorto encouragecommunitydialogueandaction.centraltoahjasa ssuccessisacommunity participationmodelfocusedonempoweringindividualstochangebehaviorsandtake responsibilityforthesolutionstotheirproblems.thoughultimatelyeachcommunitymust decidewhethercleanwaterisapriorityitiswillingtopayfor,ahjasa sinvolvementgreatly increasesthechanceitsresidentswillhaveimprovedaccesstocleanwater. Demand Aspreviouslymentioned,itisestimatedthatonly14percentofruralcommunitiesdisinfect theirwatersuppliesandwater borneillnessesaretheleadingcausesofmortality.thisis indicativeofboththelackofaccesstoandlowdemandforcleanwater.lowlevelsof educationregardingbasicwatersanitationandtreatmentareevidentinmanycommunities, includingsomeoftheonesvisited,asanimalsareallowedtoroamanddefecatearoundwater sourcesanddrinkfreelyfromthem.soapwasnotpresentinmanybathroomswithtoiletsand evenlesscommoninlatrines.contaminationalsohappensduringthetransportandstorageof water,andwhilemanypersonsinterviewedclaimedtoregularlycleantheirwaterstorage recipients,itisnotuncommenttoseemosquitoesnearthem.moreover,manyhouseholdsdid notusepoint of usetreatmentmethods(i.e.boiling,liquidchlorine),especiallywhenthe centralsystemsweresupposedlybeingdisinfected. 12

13 Inadditiontoagenerallackofeducationandawarenessabouttheimportanceofcleanwater fordiseaseprevention,manyinterviewsrevealedsignificantmisperceptionsabouttheeffects ofchlorineandobjectionstoitsuse.acommoncomplaintwasthebadtasteandodorof chlorineandfearsthatitcausedcancer,hairloss,orwasotherwiseharmful.whilemanyofthe waterboardmembersinterviewednowchlorinatetheirwatersystems,alladmittedthatitwas averydifficultandlongprocesstoconvincecommunitymembersoftheimportanceoftreating waterandtoovercometheirmisperceptionsaboutchlorine.thereductionintheincidenceof diseasesandassociatedmedicalcostswastheprimarymotivatingfactorinmanycommunities forcontinuingtochlorinatetheirsystemsanddemandthatitbedonesoregularlyandwithin theappropriatestandards. Basedonthefieldwork,itisclearthatonlywell functioningandmotivatedcommunitiesand theirwaterboardsconsistentlydemandwaterdisinfectionproducts,namelychlorine.forthis reason,well trainedwaterboardsandparticipatorycommunitiesarecriticaltothelong term successofthechlorinebankprogram.ahjasa strainingandtechnicalassistancearecentral componentsnecessarytoincreaseawarenessoftheimportanceofcleanwater,the effectivenessofchlorineandotherdisinfectionmethods,andcanultimatelydrivedemand.to thiseffect,circuitridersandothertechnicalstaffarekeyactorstaskednotonlywithensuring thefunctionalityofwatersystems,butwitheducatingcommunitiesandbolstering participation,self sufficiency,anddemandforcleanwater. Onekeydeficiencyinfosteringdemandisthatthechlorinebankcurrentlydoesnothaveany marketingorpromotionalsupplies(i.e.brochures,pamphlets,posters)ortheadequatefunding toproducethese.evenrelativelybasicmaterialscouldbepassedalongtocommunity treasurerswhoarrivetopurchasechlorinesupplies,whointurncouldpasstheinformationto certaincommunitymembers.moreimportantlyperhaps,communitiesthatarenot consistentlychlorinatingcouldbetargetedforsuchinformationdissemination.marketingand educationalcampaignscancreatedemandforwaterdisinfection,dispelmythsand misperceptionsaboutchlorine,andinformcommunitieswhereandhowtoobtainthe necessaryproducts. CapacityofLocalWaterBoards Notsurprisingly,thecapacityoflocalwaterboardsvariesgreatlythroughoutHonduras. AccordingtotheSistemadeInformaciondeAguaRural(SIAR),acentralizeddatabaseofrural watersystemsandwaterboardsmanagedbysanaa,butnotupdatedsince2002,about35 percentofwatersystemsandboardsarecategorizedaswell functioning,21percentare completelybrokendown,andtherestfallsomewhereinbetween(seeappendixefora summarytable).thoughgreatimprovementstotheruralwatersectorweremadesincethe 1980s,HurricaneMitchunderminedmanyoftheseeffortsanddestroyedmanywater systems. xxv Thoughinterviewswereprimarilywithcommunitiesthathadwell functioningsystems,itwas clearfromtouringneighboringvillagesthatthisistheexceptionratherthantherule.most waterboardsandcommunitiesdonotmanagetheirwaterresourcesinanorganizedor sustainablefashion.thecalculationandcollectionoftariffsisacentralfunctionofthewater boardandgeneratestherevenuesnecessaryforthemtopurchasechlorinesupplies.inmany 13

14 instances,however,tariffsaresettoolowtopayfortheoperation,maintenance,and chlorinationofthesystem,ornotcollectedatall.povertyandunemploymentarekeyreasons, asmanyfamiliescannotpaythefees,butpoormanagementandleadershiparealsofactors. Poormanagementoftenleadstophysicalbreakdownsofwatersystems,which,inturn,greatly increasethelikelihoodoflowornon existenttariffcollection.evenwellorganizedand consciouscommunitiessometimesfaceareticencetopaymonthlyratesonbehalfofits members,particularlyduringthedryseasonwhenwaterresourcesarelow.collectionalso presentsaproblemandmanycommunitymembersareindebt(mora)andsubjecttobeingcut offfromthewatersupply. ASANAAdirectornotesinarecentreport, waterboardsarewellsuitedtooperaterural systemsbutneedsomeformofbackupsupport. xxvi AHJASAprovidesthissupportand throughitseducationandtrainingprogramshelpswaterboardstoprepareanoperating budget,calculatetheappropriatetariff,andsupporttheleadershipinconvincingthe communityofthenecessitytoagreetopaythetariff.moreover,itsprogramsemphasize transparency,accountability,andgoodgovernanceinsustainablymanagingcommunityfunds. ManyofthecommunitiesthataremembersofAHJASAregularlyreviewtheirtariffsandvoteto increasetheminordertoproperlyoperatetheirsystems.insomecases,tariffsarehigh enoughtocreateapoolofsavingsthatthecommunitycanuseforlargerrepairsorforthe replacementofthesystemwhenitsusefullifeismet(usually20years).ahjasawaterboards arealsomorelikelytoholdregularmeetingsandcommunityassembliestoelectnewmembers, voteontariffsorotherpressingissues,andreportontheuseoffundsandnewprojects. Moreover,itwasapparentthatproperdisinfectionrequiredsignificanttrainingandregular monitoringandsupportfromahjasa.circuitridersoftenreportedthatplumberswouldstop monitoringchlorinelevelsifthecircuitriderswerenotcheckingtheirreportsperiodically.if waterboardsregularlychlorinatedtheirwater,utilizationandsalesofchlorine,services,and accessorieswouldrise.circuitridersandsectorcoordinatorsarecriticalactorsthatcanfoster demandthrougheducation,increasethecapacityofwaterboardstoaffordandbuy disinfectionproducts,promotethechlorinebank,andprovidetechnicalassistanceregarding theproperoperationofvariousdisinfectionmethods.thiswouldenhancethesustainabilityof thechlorinebankbyensuringthatcommunitiesnotonlyinstallchlorinatorsbutthattheyuse themcorrectlyaswell. SupplyChain TheChlorineBank AHJASA schlorinebankhasbeeninoperationfornearly10yearsandhasabouteightlocal municipalanddepartmentalbranches.thecentralbankonlyhasonefull timestaff,its director,inchargeofallofitsoperationsfromsalestoadministration;atthelocallevel,ahjasa administrators,circuitriders,orotherstaffsellproductstocustomersandmaintainrecords, butnooneisinchargeofitspromotion,marketing,orstrategicdevelopment.whilethe chlorinebankprogramhasgeneratedsomemodestprofitsthatallowittoremaininoperation, itslimitedhumanandcapitalresourcesanddependencyonthedonationofchlorineproducts haverestricteditsexpansionandoverallsuccessincreatingasustainablemarketforwater disinfectionproducts. 14

15 Staffing&Management ThemostrecentindependentauditofAHJASA sprogramsandfinancialposition(november 2009)foundsignificantdeficienciesinthemanagementofthechlorinebankrelatedtothelack ofappropriateadministrativecontrols.theseincludedpoorrecordkeepingofsaleslogs,high ratesofuncollecteddebt,alackofstandardpoliciesregardingsalesandpurchasesoncredit, andnoregularprocessforperiodicinventories,amongothers.thechlorinebankdirector, whosesalaryismostlycommission based,isdriventogeneratesales,markettheproducts,and frequentlytravelsthroughoutthecountrytodistributesuppliesandattractnewclients.the salespartofthejobhasclearlytakenpriorityovertheadministrationofthebank.thecurrent directorhasastrongbackgroundinsalesandhascultivatedimportantcontacts;administration ofthebank sactivities,however,remainsaweaknessinthebank soperationsanditcould greatlybenefitfromincreasedstaffing. ThedecentralizedstructureofAHJASAandthelocalchlorinebanksalsomaketheir managementmoredifficultandcomplex.currently,thereisaverylooseandinformalstructure ofregionalchlorinebanks,andtheyhavevariedunderstandingsaboutwhattheroleand functionofeachbankshouldbeinrelationshiptothecentralchlorinebank.localbanksneed tobestrengthenedaswellintermsofdedicatedstaff,technology(i.e.thebankinmarcala lackedafunctioningcomputer),andmarketing.relatedtothisistheabsenceofacentralized databasewithinahjasatocollectallthedataregardingclientsservedandproductssold. Somedocumentsandspreadsheetsexist,butthesehavelimitedinformationaboutAHJASA communitiesandthereisalackofformalandaccessibleinformationspecificallyrelatedto chlorineproductsales,use,andtrainings. Products&Distribution Havingregular,consistentaccesstotherighttypeandadiversityofproductscanstrengthen thechlorinebank ssupplychainanddistributioncapabilities.currently,thechlorinebank dependsheavilyonproductdonationsbyforeigncompanies,especiallysincethetablet chlorinatoritdistributesisnotmanufactureddomestically.however,thesedonationsarenot alwayssufficient,forcingcustomerstowaitforthechlorinebanktoimportadditionalsupplies throughouttheyearatahighcost.donationsofchlorinewillalwaysbeusefulduetoahjasa s smallbudget,butthedrawbackfromthissourceisthattheproductsarenotalwaysthemost neededorappropriateforcommunities watersystems.forexample,manycommunitieswere buyingsmalltabletsfortheirlarge tabletchlorinatorbecausethiswastheonlyproduct availableatthetime.thesecommunitieswereunhappywiththepurchase,asthechlorinedid notlastaslong,requiredmoremonitoring,andhadhigherresiduals,whichleftabadtasteto thewater. ItwouldbehooveAHJASAtohavedependableandappropriatesourcesofchlorineandregular deliveryschedules totheextentpossible toavoidbuyingproductstosatisfylastminute requestsfromregionalchlorinebanks.whileahjasafacescertainconstraintstoacquiring largequantitiesofchlorinesuchaslackoffinancialcapitalandlogisticalarrangements(e.g. trucksfortransport,placestostoretheproducts),ahjasacanstillimproveitsroleand performanceaspartofthesupplychainingettingproductstocommunities.somebasic 15

16 improvementscouldinclude:anorganizedbook keepingoperation,tightenedfinances,and calculatingmorereliableschedulesofwhenvariouscommunitieswillneedproductsinorderto saveontransportationcosts. Moreover,AHJASAshouldconsiderdiversifyingitsproductbaseinordertoexpanditsclientele. Roughly20percentofruralwatersystemsarecompletelybrokendownandabout22,000other ruralcommunitiesdonothavesystemsatall.significantcontaminationoccursinthetransport andstorageofwater.inthesecases,itisnecessarytoprovidecommunitieswithalternative and/oradditionalmethodsforwaterdisinfectionsuchasceramic(filtron)orslowsand (Biosand)filtersandliquidchlorine(seeAppendixFforalistofalternativedisinfection products). Competition OneoftheprimaryobstaclestosustainabilitynotedbynearlyalltheAHJASAstaffinterviewed isthecompetitionfromotherngosorcharitablemissionsthatdonatechlorineproducts insteadofsellingthemorfromprivatebusinessesthatareabletosellgranularhypochloriteat alowercost.severalwaterboardsinterviewedmentionedthattheyreceivedonatedchlorine products;somementionedthatpoliticiansalsowouldgetinvolvedduringcampaigns,promising newsystemsorimprovedservices.whenproductsaredonated,thereisrarelyasustained educationefforttocomplementthegifts;moreimportantly,the free productscomewitha price,namelyincreaseddependencyonoutsidehelp.assomecommunitiesreceivefree chlorine,themembersbecomereluctanttobuythesameproductsdowntheline,evenafter theyhaverunoutandthedonorshaveleftthecommunity.thisphenomenonundermines AHJASA sandthechlorinebanks worksignificantly. CommunitiesthatarecommittedtoAHJASA sapproachofself sufficiencyrecognizethatfree productsarenotpartofasustainablemanagementofwatersystems.othercommunitieswith moretenuouslinkstoahjasa,however,weretargetsfordonorngoslookingtogaininfluence and(intentionallyorunintentionally)undermineahjasa swork.donationsmadeto communitiesincreasedependencyonexternalactors,underminethemarketforchlorine products,andlowerthevalueplacedonthoseproductsandservicesbylocalcommunities. Undertheseconstraints,thechlorinebankcannotraisethepricesofitsdisinfectionproductsto coveritsoperatingcostsorexpand.however,asahjasa spresident,omarnunez,suggested, inthesesortsofsituationsahjasamustsimplylettheotheractorsspendtheirmoneyand giveawaytheirproducts,becausewhentheresourcesrundry,ahjasawillstillbethereto offersupportandmoresustainablealternatives. IV.CaseStudies:CommunityTypologyinRuralHonduras Belowarefourcasestudiesthathighlightsomeofthespecificissuesthatcommunitiesare facing.thefieldworkandresearchrevealedthatcommunitiescouldbebroadlydistinguished basedontwokeyfactors:management(ledbythewaterboard);andwaterresources. Examplesofbothgoodandpoormanagementandadequateandpoorresourcesare addressed. 16

17 LasTranquitas,LaPaz:Adequateresourcesandmanagement Thetreasurerofthiswater board,manuelrodrigo,helpedexplainaboutsomeofthedynamics ofthewater boardandthecommunityoflastranquitas.theentirecommunitymeetsevery monthoftheyeartodiscusswater relatedissues;thewater boardchargesafineof50 lempirastoanymemberwhodoesnotattendthemonthlymeeting,encouragingattendance anddrivinghomethemessagethatthewater boardtakescommunityinvolvementseriously. Rarelydocommunitymembersfailtopaythe25 lempiramonthlyfeetothewater board,and ifnecessarythewater boardwillthreatentocuttheconnectionofahouseholdthatisnot paying.thefactthatwaterismostlyabundanthelpsencourageconsistentpayment.allhouses haverunningwaterintheirhouse,andthesystemiswellmaintainedandregularlychlorinated. Overtheyears,thiscommunityhasbecomeaccustomedtochlorineasthetreatmentmethod, andmanuelstatedthatpeoplemightevencomplainiftheydonotsenseatraceofchlorinein thewater,thoughthisrarelyhappensastheplumberregularlychecksthecommunityfor adequatechlorinelevels.notonlydidwater boardmembersreceivetraining,butalsothe wholecommunityreceivedsomesortoftrainingandeducationpresentationfromahjasa,and sincethen,knowledgeandawarenesshavebeenpassedaroundthecommunity,resultingin strongunityandconsciousness.thewatersourceistwokilometersawayfromthewatertank, andthecommunityhasmadesurethesourceandiswellprotected.whilethecommunityhas maintainedthewatersourceandsystemwellovertheyears,thetankandpipesthatsupplythe townarereachingtheendoftheirlife span;anewsystemwillcost200,000lempiras(~$10,000 US),andthecommunityhasonlymanagedtosave120,000lempiras. Whenthesystemis ruined, Manuelexplained, wewillgototheothersource, referringtoasmallerwatersource aboutakilometerawayfromthetown.thissourcewouldnotbeconnectedinanywayto people shomesanditwouldbenecessarytotransportwaterincontainers.inonesense,las Tranquitasisfortunatetohaveplentyofwaterresourcesinthenearbyarea other communitiesfaceseriouswatershortages.thepeopleoflastranquitashavebeentakingcare ofthisothersource,anticipatingthedaythatthecurrentinfrastructuregivesway.agoalfor thefutureistodoublethemonthlytarifftobeabletosaveupforfuturerepairsand replacements,butthisgoalisbynomeanscertain.whilelastranquitashasawellfunctioning system,thetariffremainslowduetoseasonalityanduncertaintyofincome.thecoffeeharvest suppliesalargeportionofmostresidents income,whichintotalisasmallamount;most residentshavelessthantwoacresoflandandmanyhouseholdstrytorentorborrowlandto growmaizeorbeansduringotherpartsoftheyear.cashincomeisscarceformostresidents, andpaying50lempiraspermonthwouldbedifficultformany.whatlastranquitasdoeshave isasolidconsciousnessoftreatingthewaterandasenseofitsvalue;thisisperhapsthemost importantaspectforhavingasuccessfulwater managementsystem.manuelandother membersofthewater boardcreditedthetrainingprovidedbyahjasawithinstillingthe communitywithaconsciousnessoftheimportanceofcleanwaterandmaintainingtheirwater systems.donjoseirene,thecircuitriderforlastranquitas,iswellknowninthecommunity andpleasedwithitsself sufficiency;henolongerdoesanydirecttrainingforthecommunity thewaterboardandplumbertrainmembersasneeded.higherincomesandincreasedfunds forthewaterboardinordertoreplacetheaginginfrastructurearetheprimarilyneedsfor systemimprovements. 17

18 PiedrasBlancas,Valle:Poorresources,poormanagement ThiscommunitystandsinstarkcontrasttotheseeminglyharmoniousTranquitas.Perhapsa gooddealoftheinitialperceptionofcontrastisduetothetremendousdifferenceinterrain. Nacaomeislocatedinthesouthwesternpartofthecountry alreadyadryregion andit experiencedamarkeddecreaseofrainduringthepastrainyseasonandissufferingfromdire shortagesofwater.wearrivedtopiedrasblancas,inthedepartmentofvalleandsatinona communitymeeting.jorge,oneofthecircuitridersfortheregion,wasofferingthecommunity theopportunitytoacquirefiltersforwaterpurificationonthehouseholdlevel;heencouraged themtoconsider,asacommunity,theneedforcleanwaterandthechancetobuythequality filtersatasubsidizedrate.duringinformaldiscussionsafterthemeeting,wefoundoutthatthis communityhadbeenusingchlorineyearsagobutwasnotcurrentlyusingit.jorgeexplainedto usthathehadurgedthemtoconsiderusingitagainonseveraloccasions,butthathewasnow focusingonothermethodstogetthemtotreatthewater thusthefilters.weleftthetown withaprofoundsenseofuncertainty.whyhadthetownrejectedchlorine?whywasthe water boardsopoorlyorganized?theanswerstotheabovequestionshavealottodowith thecommunityorganizationandwatersystemmanagement.thewater boardhashad frequentturn overandfewregularmeetings;ahjasacircuitridershadvisitedthetown regularlyyearsagobutinthepastcoupleofyearcircuitridershadnotbeenabletovisitpiedras Blancasconsistently,andthetownceasedusingchlorine ittastedbad itwasdifficulttoget andexpensivetobuy. Wouldconsistentcircuitriderattentiontothisvillagehaveledto continuedchlorinatingbythecommunity?perhapsnot,buttheattituderelatedtowater treatmentcertainlywouldnotbeanyworsethanitisnow.thiscommunityhasaweakwaterboardandlittlecommunitycohesion;misinformationaboutchlorineseemstoberampantand consciousnessofcleanwater simportanceisquitelow;cleanwaterdoesnotappeartobea priorityforthiscommunity.improvementsintheirdrinkingwatermustsurgefromwithinthe community butsomeoutsidesupportmayhelpspursuchchange. LaLlave,Valle:Poorresources,goodmanagement ThiscommunityhasanelectricpumpthatwasbuiltwithfundsfromtheTexacooilcompany andisfunctioningquitewell.overtheyears,the42householdsofthiscommunityhaveagreed toraisethemonthlyrateinordertoincreasesavingsforfuturereplacementcostsandgeneral maintenance.intheyear2000themonthlyfeewasat60lempirasandacoupleofyearslater thecommunitydecidedtoraiseitto85permonth;themonthlyratenowstandsat120 lempiras.currentlythewater boardhas47,000lempirassavedup(approximately$2,400), whichisearmarkedforcoststothewatersystem.thepresidentofthiswater board,don Benitohasbeeninvolvedinthecommunity swatersystemsformanyyearsandtakespridein havingitfunctionwell.thewater boardrecentlyraisedmoneyseparatelyfromthemonthly userfeesinordertoinstalleighttrashcansinandaroundthecommunity,andthecommunity hasadditionalplansforreforestationprojects.thiswater boardandcommunityareworkingto becometrulyself sufficient,withagoalofbeingabletoaffordanewwatersystemintheyears tocome.lallavehasa20 yearplanthatincludesenvironmentalgoalssuchasreforestation andextensiveanddetailedrepairschedulesforthewatersystem sdifferentparts(pump,water tank,pipes,etc).the20 yearplanalsoincludesadministrativetasksandoversight,trainings 18

19 andmeetings,andself evaluations.forthetimebeing,thecommunityappearstobe committedtomaintainingtheirwatersystem.benitocreditsahjasa stechnicaladvisors,the circuitriders,withhavingprovidedimportantaccesstotrainingsandinformation.herecalls thatsomeforeignerscametovisitthetownwithahjasasomeyearsagotostressthe importanceoftreatingthewater,explainingtothecommunitythatwealthiercountriessuchas theunitedstatesusechlorinetotreattheirwater.thisparticularpresentationandahjasa s guidanceovertheyearsmadeadifferenceinchangingtheperceptionofthecommunity membersandinstillingaconsciousnessofthevalueofcleanwater.ahjasaconsistentlygives advicetolallavewater boardmembersabouthowtokeepthesystemingoodshape,and mostimportantly,ahjasahasofferedcommunitymemberschancestoreceivetrainings.these educationopportunitiesaredirectlyresponsibleforcommunityinitiativesforreforestationand garbagecleanup.unfortunatelylallaveisforcedtopaycommercialratesfortheelectricity thatpowersthepump,buttheyareadialoguewithmunicipalofficialstotrytochangethis. Wearepayingasmuchasthreetimeswhatnon commercialuserspay,andwearenot commercial, Benitoexplainedtous.Butfarfromdistraught,hewasmorematter of factabout thesituationandconfidentthattheycouldarrangesomething. SantaAna,FranciscoMorazan:Adequateresources,poormanagement Thistownof500familieshaswaterconnectionstomostofthehouses,butthewaterpressure isquitepoor,andmoresignificantly,thequalityisterrible.nowaterboardexistsinsantaana andtheyhavenoaffiliationwithahjasa.thewatersystemisgravity fedandreliesontwo differentsourcestoreachallhouses,thoughneithersourceprovidescleanwater.wevisited oneofthesourcesupseveralkilometersawayfromthetowncenter.itwasarathersmallpond withaconcretebottom;roughly10meterssquaredsurfaceareaandmerely29inchesdeepat thetimewevisited.thewaterwasagreenishbrownwithpoolsofgrassandmuckonthe surface.therewerecowsandafewhorsesgrazingonthedustybitsofgrasssurroundingthe watersource,andtherewasnotevenafencetokeeptheanimalsfromapproachingtheliquid. Dagoberto,thetown snewplumber(fontanero),saidthatthefirstpriorityshouldbetoexpand thewatersourcewithmachinerytoallowforagreaterquantityofwater,andofcourse,hesaid shakinghishead,itmustbefencedofffromthelivestockandotherwiseprotected.therewere fewtreeswithin100metersofthedirtypool,anddagobertoalsomentionedplantingtreesasa criticalactivity.weweresurprisedthatthiswatersourcefornearlyhalfofthetownwasso poorlycaredfor.dagobertoexplainedthatthepoliticianshadnotseenwaterasapriorityand thattheyclaimednottohaveenoughmoneytofixupthesystem.indeedthenewlyelected mayor,withwhomwevisitedthewatersource,madenumerouspleastousforoutsidefunds. Surely, hesaid, thegovernmentsoftheunitedstatesandkoreacanhelpus,whoarepoor andneedy,withsomefunds.i msurethatyoumustknowsomeonewhocanhelpus. It occurredtous(andofcoursedagoberto)thatputtingafencearoundthewatersourcetofend offthesurroundinglivestockwouldbeagoodstart,andthatshouldnotrequireforeign assistance.santaanawasunfortunatetohaveaseriesofpoliticianswhodidnotinvestinthe watersystem.dagobertowasinanunenviablesituationofimprovingthewatersystemwith littlefundsorpoliticalsupport.thecurrentmayorappearedtobeinterestedinashort term solutionforthewaterpressureproblem,buthadlittleinterestinlarger scaleprojectsrelated toquality. Wedon thaveanymoney, hesaid, thereislittlethatwecandoatthemoment. 19

20 SuchanattitudeisanathematoAHJASA,anditwasstrikingtovisitsmallandruralcommunities operatingindryareasthathadbetterqualitywaterthanthetownofsantaana,whichfacedno problemsofscarcity;santaana swaterproblemsweremorecloselyrelatedtoineptitude, corruption,andlackofpoliticalwill. V.Challenges Substantialproblemsexistatthecommunitylevel,atanorganizationallevelforAHJASA,and therearealsosignificantandlargestructuralproblemsthatareatanationallevelnotto mentionataregionalandgloballevel. V.1.Community levelissues Severalimportantissueswithincommunitiesthatcontributetothelackofwatertreatmentand consequentlythelackofdemandforchlorineproductshavealreadybeentoucheduponinthis report.theproblemsdiscussedinthissectionbuilduponsuchcoreproblemsandare widespreadinruralhondurasbutnotnecessarilytrueforeverycommunity. Acorecommunity levelproblemisthegenerallackofincomeinmosthouseholds.withlow incomestobeginwith,manypeopleareunwillingtopayamonthlyfeeforwateriftheyarenot convincedoftheimportanceoftreatingthewaterandtreatingitspecificallywithchlorine.ifa householdtrulybelievesthatwatershouldbeaprioritythenitcanusuallycomeupwiththe monthlyfeeforthewater board,andlikewisethehouseholdwouldsupportincreasesinthe tariffiftheyfeelthatsuchmeasuresarenecessarytomaintainthewatersystem.ahjasa(and otherorganizations)hascomparedwateruserfeestotheamountofmoneythataverage householdsspendoncoca Cola,emphasizingthatinmostcasesthewaterfeeisnot prohibitivelycostly;ratherbycuttingbackoncertainproductslikesoftdrinks,householdscan paythewaterfeewithoutproblem.however,thepovertyofmanycommunitiesshouldnotbe minimized.lackofstablejobsforcommunitymembersisaseriousconstraint.evenincoffee growingregions,coffeeproducersaresmallandhaveaccesstoonlyafewacresofland,ifthat. Therevenuefromthecurrentcoffeeharvestmostlydoesnotlastuntilthenextharvest,and peopleoftenturntosubsistenceagricultureorwagelaboriftheyareableto.thereismuch financialuncertaintyincommunities,andwhilethemonthlywater feesmaynotbethathigh,it isstilldifficultformanyhouseholdstopaythefeesonatimelybasis. Duetothedifficulteconomicclimateincommunities,migrationinsearchofworkis widespread.communitymembersgototegucigalpaorothercitiestolookforwork,andmany arewillingtoriskadifficultandcostlyjourneynorthtotheunitedstates.thisprevalenceof migrationcanbeaquitesignificantfactorinacommunity scohesionandorganizationbecause inmanycasespotentialcommunityleadersandkeyhouseholdmembersaresimplynot present.ononehandremittancescanplayanimportantroleinprovidingmoneytofamilies, butontheotherhandtheabsenceofpeoplecanleadtoshortagesofmotivatedandmobilizing individualsandevenshortagesofmanuallabor.peoplerarelyleavetheirtownsbecausethey wantto;rathernecessityseemstobetheprinciplemotivation,andunfortunatelythereareno guaranteesthatanemigrantwillbesuccessfulinfindingajobonceabroad. 20