UC Santa Cruz, 1156 High St, Santa Cruz CA 95064

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1 Innovative Teaching Strategies for Large Enrollment Science Courses (Reviews available at: Focus on: Enhancing Lectures with Active Learning Kristin McCully ab, Cheryl M. Zurbrick ac, Doris B. Ash a a Education Department; b Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; c Department of Environmental Toxicology; UC Santa Cruz, 1156 High St, Santa Cruz CA When one gives up being the sage on the stage to being a guide on the side, teaching will never again be the same. Clyde Freeman Herreid (1998) Economic projections point to a need for the U.S. to produce approximately one million more science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) professionals than the current rate over the next decade (PCAST 2012). To meet this goal, the United States will need to increase the number of students who receive undergraduate STEM degrees by about 34% annually over current rates. Retaining more students in STEM majors is the lowest cost, fastest policy option to providing the STEM professionals that the nation needs for economic and societal well being. Fewer than 40% of students who enter college intending to major in a STEM field complete a STEM degree (a proportion that is declining, Watkins and Mazur 2013), while only 20% of minority STEM aspirants (African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans) complete STEM degrees (Hrabrowski 2011). Many students cite as reasons for leaving poor teaching, uninspiring introductory courses, and an unwelcoming atmosphere from faculty in STEM courses (PCAST 2012, Watkins and Mazur 2013). Many national reports (e.g., BIO2010) call for improving STEM education by evaluating teaching strategies with the scientific process and using strategies that are supported by evidence (e.g., scientific teaching, Handelsman et al. 2004). A large and growing body of research indicates that STEM education can be substantially improved by using evidence based teaching methods, such as active learning and collaborative learning, that are particularly more effective at reaching women and members of minority groups. These strategies are particularly important in large enrollment introductory courses that most often use the lecture method and after which many students leave STEM majors. In addition to better preparing and recruiting more STEM professionals, improving undergraduate STEM education, particularly introductory courses, will increase the science literacy of students. Although not all will become STEM professionals, as educated citizens, they will make daily decisions about issues such as personal health, energy and resource use, conservation and science policy. Lastly, these could have an enormous impact on the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of students who become K 12 teachers. Although there is no single best way to facilitate learning, many instructors and education researchers strongly recommend that instructors enhance or replace the classic lecture method with other activities, although they acknowledge that lectures remain an effective method to deliver information that is particularly difficult to understand or is too recent to be included in reading assignments (Silverthorn 2006). They critique the classic didactic lecture, in which the professor talks for 50 minutes or more and perhaps asks a few questions that are answered by assertive students in the front rows (Silverthorn 2006), particularly in introductory science courses, for a variety of reasons: Students get the impression that science is simply a collection of disconnected facts to be memorized with little relevance to their daily lives (Wood 2009, Momsen et al. 2010). Relatively few students (<50%) attend regularly in many courses. Students are usually not well prepared and expect the instructor and assistants to cover everything they need to do well on exams. Instructors have no immediate feedback on student understanding. 1

2 Instructors of later courses often critique that students do not retain information from introductory courses (Klionsky 2004). Students are rarely engaged in class and often spend lectures surfing the Internet or sleeping. Instructors get to know relatively few of the students in the course (Lodish and Rodriquez 2004). Lecturing is not designed around the principles of learning produced by research in psychology, education, and other fields (e.g., NRC 2003). Instead lecturing is based on restrictions hundreds of years ago before the invention of the printing press made books and information easily available. Large lecture courses often do not contribute to fostering students scientific curiosity, analytic and critical thinking, and problem solving skills, which are key skills for future scientists (Handelsman et al. 2004). Many papers in education research show that students learn better from activities other than lecture (e.g., Hake 1998, Knight and Wood 2005). Science education research strongly supports the use of active learning activities to enhance, improve, and possibly replace lectures in large enrollment courses. Active learning strategies are defined as instructional activities involving students in doing things and thinking about what they are doing (Bonwell & Eison 1991). These activities range from simple and short tasks, such as comparing notes with neighbors and think pairshare, to complex and longer activities, such as problem based learning and flipped classroom models (Bonwell and Sutherland 1996). Active learning strategies are based on the constructivist theory that students are not passive recipients of knowledge handed down from authority, but should instead be actively engaged in developing their own mental models (Gilbert & Boulter 2000) of the material at a deep conceptual level as well as integrating that knowledge into a larger framework for solving problems and seeing connections of major principles across STEM disciplines and courses. According to instructors who have used them and published on their research, goals for active learning strategies include: increasing and managing student student and studentinstructor interaction enhancing student learning of content and scientific process skills developing more positive attitudes towards learning, science, and schooling developing social and collaboration skills essential for science, business, and many other careers Collaborative learning in UCSC s METX 80E: Aquatic Toxicology (Cheryl Zurbrick) particularly encouraging and supporting members of underrepresented groups (e.g., African Americans, Latina/os, women, and socioeconomically disadvantaged students) (Haak et al. 2011) Evidence for Effectiveness of Active Learning There are large bodies of evidence from a number of different fields supporting the effectiveness of active learning. For example, there are reviews of evidence regarding active learning in physiology (Michael 2006) and engineering (Prince 2004). Here are a few of the most widely known studies: Hake (1998) showed that for a sample of over 6,000 students in 55 introductory physics courses nationwide the average learning gains were nearly twice as high in courses with interactive engagement than in traditional courses. Knight and Wood (2005) showed that substituting more engaging student centered activities for lecturing in about 30 40% of class time in a large upper division developmental biology course resulted in increasing in a 33% improvement in performance, as measured by pre and post tests. 2

3 Haak and others (2011) showed that active learning exercises, such as clicker questions with peer instruction, a weekly practice exam, and extensive informal group work, improved the performance of all students in a college level introductory biology class and reduced the achievement gap between disadvantaged and nondisadvantaged students. Watkins and Mazur (2013) showed that integrating clicker questions with peer instruction into an introductory physics class at Harvard University dramatically improved students scores on the widelyaccepted Force Concept Inventory and the Mechanics Baseline Test and halved the proportion of students switching out of a STEM major compared to a traditionally taught course. Challenges and Mitigation Most scientists have been trained by and succeeded with the lecture method, so they may not know how to lead a discussion or properly implement active learning. Unfortunately, UCSC s Center for Teaching and Learning ( is not currently providing workshops or discussion groups due to budget cutbacks, but several academic societies provide workshops on teaching (e.g., National Academies Summer Institutes on Undergraduate Education in Biology. You may be able to find and observe a mentor in your department that currently uses active learning. You should start with using simple active learning strategies occasionally such as the pause procedure and think pair share (see below). Designing active learning exercises takes time and work, so you may want to start with exercises others have designed. You can talk to your colleagues who teach similar courses or find a huge variety of activities online. However, some strategies do not require any additional preparation, such as the pause procedure and think pair share discussed below. Although transforming a traditional course requires the additional work of creating effective in class activities and formative assessments (assessment explicitly designed to quickly inform instructors how to improve instruction), designing a new course around the active learning model may require no more effort than preparing the lectures for a new traditional course (Wood 2009). Active learning strategies reduce time available for traditional lecturing and therefore the amount of information that can be covered. You can use strategies such as Just in Time Teaching (JiTT) and clicker questions to hold students responsible for their own learning before class and cover just as much information (see our reviews on JiTT and clickers). Active learning also tends to emphasize higher order learning skills, such as analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and critical thinking, rather than just memorizing facts. Large lecture halls with rows of fixed seats are badly designed for collaborative learning. However, students can work with their neighbors and people behind and in front of them and on steps and the floor, as well as in laboratory or discussion sections. Many institutions are also building café style seating to facilitate group work. Students can be threatened by a new approach to learning, particularly one that requires them to do more work than simply listening to a lecture. Upper division science majors are usually survivors of the traditional lecture system and may be hostile to new strategies. Student evaluations may slump for the first few years while instructors experiment with active learning and students become more used to active learning. However, you can minimize this by explaining early and often the goals and evidence behind active learning and evaluating learning in your course with pre and post tests you design using course goals or based on published concept inventories. Integrating active learning into your teaching requires a willingness to let go of some control in the classroom and a change in perspective from instructor centered teaching to student centered teaching. Start small with occasional use of think pair share, pause procedure, and clicker questions before trying case study and problem based learning or totally eliminating lecture by flipping your classroom. Most active learning strategies don t require particular materials. If you want to do a demonstration or an activity with manipulatives (e.g., pipecleaners mimicking chromatids in mitosis and meiosis, beans representing alleles), your department may have some funding available for courses. 3

4 It is important to note that a randomized study of introductory biology courses throughout the United States found no association between student learning gains and the use of active learning instruction (Andrews et al. 2011), suggesting that most instructors lack the rich and nuanced understanding of teaching and learning that science education researchers have developed and may not include important elements necessary for student learning. Thus, instructors should participate in faculty development workshops if possible and carefully assess what their students are learning. How to: Active Learning in Practice Active learning strategies can range from simple exercises lasting a few minutes to complex exercises lasting a full period or longer. Many of these strategies both engage the student and provide the instructor (and often the student) an opportunity to understand and assess students learning in time for the instructor to address problems in class (formative assessment). Common Strategies (From Simple to Complex): Pause procedure: Pause periodically (perhaps 2 3 times in an hour lecture) and have students clarify their notes with a partner for about 2 minutes. During this time, the instructor can also ask if students have any questions and circulate around the room to answer questions and look at student notes. Ruhl et al. (1987) show statistically significant increases in student learning on free recall quizzes at the end of lecture and comprehensive examinations given twelve days later. Students also often improve their note taking skills. Think Pair Share: Ask a challenging (often open ended) question or ask students to prepare a list of concepts they find confusing. Give students a minute or two to think about the question and work out an answer. Ask students to get together in groups of 2 4 students. Ask for responses from some or all of the pairs or small groups. This can take as little as 3 minutes for simpler questions and tasks. (resource: One minute paper : Ask students to turn in a short answer response to an important question, such as What is the difference between replication and transcription? You may want to provide index cards or provide two minutes instead. Muddiest point paper: At the end of class, ask students to turn in a short, often anonymous statement of what they found most difficult as they walk out the door. Alternatively, you can ask students to summarize the main points in the lecture. Brainstorming: Start class or a new topic by having students brainstorm on what they know about the topic for the day. Put ideas on the board and use them as an organizing principle for the lecture. Alternatively, have a group brainstorming session to solve a problem. Classroom response system (clickers): Start your class and/or take breaks during a lecture to ask your students a multiple choice question to which they respond with clickers. If >20% of students answer incorrectly, have students discuss the question with their neighbors and answer again. (more information in our Clickers review) Just in Time Teaching: Students respond to an online quiz based on readings or previous lectures and instructor adapts class lecture and/or activities. (more information in our JiTT review) Collaborative and cooperative learning: Students work in small groups toward a common goal, which may include a paper, poster, presentation, or exam. (more information in our Collaborative and Cooperative Learning review) Case study teaching: Instructor presents students with a meaningful story which exemplifies a content goal, using lectures, discussions, small groups, individuals, and using computers or personal response systems. (more information in our Case Study Teaching review) Problem based learning: Instructor presents students with an open ended problem and requires students to apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution. (more information in our PBL review) Flipped classroom: If you re comfortable with active learning strategies, consider flipping or inverting your course by providing information before class with readings, recorded lectures, or podcasts and only 4

5 conducting active and collaborative learning exercises during class time. Learn more at: Herreid et al. (2013) and Pennsylvania State University video. Best Practice Tips Before you first use active learning strategies (e.g., first day of class), explain why you re using active learning and what you expect students to gain from the experience. You may even want to show data on student learning gains from the references below. Remind students of this occasionally and use it to respond to student complaints. Start small and simple start with one active learning exercise in each class meeting and add more when you gain proficiency and are secure with the method. Consider your learning objectives for each class meeting carefully. Based on them, what content is most important for students to master? What active learning strategies are most appropriate for your learning goals? What content can students cover outside of class on their own (perhaps with the help of study guides, assignments, or activities)? During peer discussion, instructor and teaching assistants should move around classroom listening and, when necessary, asking questions to help the students in their thinking. The instructor s role shifts from lecturer ( sage on the stage ) to facilitator ( guide on the side ). This gives the instructor the opportunity for student observation and assessment of student learning. Consider using strategies to keep control of the classroom during active learning activities. These might be ringing a bell or dimming the lights to gain students' attention. Give clear instructions. State the goal students should meet, how much time they have for the activity, what procedures they should follow, and with whom they should partner (ie, "turn to the person next to you" or "form groups of four with the people nearest you.") It is often a good idea to put directions for in class activities on an overhead or a PowerPoint slide so that students have something to refer to as they begin the activity. Want more info? University of Minnesota s Center for Teaching and Learning provides self paced tutorials on Active Learning with Powerpoint, Making Active Learning Work, and more: UCSC s Center for Teaching and Learning: active.html, actvlearn.html Faust, J. L., & Paulson, D. R. (1998). Active learning in the college classroom. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 9(2): Wood, W. B. (2009). Innovations in teaching undergraduate biology and why we need them. Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology, 25, doi: /annurev.cellbio List and discussion of faculty development workshops provided by scientific societies (May 2012 meeting): 2.pdf References: Andrews, T. M., Leonard, M. J., Colgrove, C. a, & Kalinowski, S. T. (2011). Active learning not associated with student learning in a random sample of college biology courses. CBE Life Sciences Education, 10(4), doi: /cbe Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom. Bonwell, C. C., & Sutherland, T. E. (1996). The active learning continuum: Choosing activities to engage students in the classroom. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 1996(67), doi: /tl Gilbert, J. K. & C. J. Boulter. (2000). Developing Models in Science Education. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 5

6 Haak, D. C., HilleRisLambers, J., Pitre, E., & Freeman, S. (2011). Increased structure and active learning reduce the achievement gap in introductory biology. Science, 332(June), Hake, R. R. (1998). Interactive engagement versus traditional methods: A six thousand student survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses. American Journal of Physics, 66(1), 64. doi: / Handelsman, J., Ebert May, D., Beichner, R., Bruns, P., Chang, A., Dehaan, R., Gentile, J., et al. (2004). Scientific teaching. Science, 304(5670), Herreid, C. F. (1998). Why isn t cooperative learning used to teach science? BioScience, 48(7), Herreid, C. F., & Schiller, N. A. (2013). Case Studies and the Flipped Classroom. Journal of College Science Teaching, 42(5), Hrabowski, F. a. (2011). Boosting minorities in science. Science, 331(6014), 125. doi: /science Klionsky, D. J. (2004). Points of View: Lectures: Can t Learn with Them, Can't Learn without Them: Talking biology: Learning outside the book and the lecture. Cell Biology Education, 3(4), doi: /cbe Knight, J. K., & Wood, W. B. (2005). Teaching more by lecturing less. Cell Biology Education, 4, doi: /05 Lodish, H. F., Rodriguez, R. K., & Klionsky, D. J. (2004). Feature Points of View: Lectures: Can t Learn with Them, Can t Learn Without Them: A combination of lectures, problem sets, and recitation sections is an excellent way to teach undergraduate cell biology at a high level. CBE Life Sciences Education, 3, Michael, J. (2006). Where s the evidence that active learning works? Advances in Physiology Education, 30(4), doi: /advan Momsen, J. L., Long, T. M., Wyse, S. A., & Ebert May, D. (2010). Just the facts? Introductory undergraduate biology courses focus on low level cognitive skills. CBE Life Sciences Education, 9(4), doi: /cbe NRC (National Research Council). (2003). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School, PCAST (President s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology). (2012). Engage to Excel: Producing One Million Additional College Graduates with Degrees in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics. Pennsylvania State University Center for Teaching and Learning Flipping the Classroom: Simply Speaking. Video: Prince, M. (2004). Does active learning work? A review of the research. Journal of Engineering Education, 93(3), Ruhl, K. L., Hughes, C. a., & Schloss, P. J. (1987). Using the pause procedure to enhance lecture recall. Teacher Education and Special Education: The Journal of the Teacher Education Division of the Council for Exceptional Children, 10(1), doi: / Silverthorn, D. U. (2006). Teaching and learning in the interactive classroom. Advances in Physiology Education, 30(4), doi: /advan Watkins, J., & Mazur, E. (2013). Retaining Students in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Majors. Journal of College Science Teaching, 42(5), Wood, W. B. (2009). Innovations in teaching undergraduate biology and why we need them. Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology, 25, doi: /annurev.cellbio

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