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1 This article was downloaded by: [Northern Kentucky University], [Danielle McDonald] On: 07 October 2011, At: 06:12 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: Registered office: Mortimer House, Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of Criminal Justice Education Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: Learning by Giving: A Quasi- Experimental Study of Student Philanthropy in Criminal Justice Education Danielle McDonald & Julie Cencula Olberding Available online: 18 Aug 2011 To cite this article: Danielle McDonald & Julie Cencula Olberding (2011): Learning by Giving: A Quasi-Experimental Study of Student Philanthropy in Criminal Justice Education, Journal of Criminal Justice Education, DOI: / To link to this article: PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

2 JOURNAL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION Aquatic Insects 2011, 1 29, ifirst Article Learning by Giving: A Quasi-Experimental Study of Student Philanthropy in Criminal Justice Education Danielle McDonald and Julie Cencula Olberding Student philanthropy is a teaching strategy that provides students with the opportunity to study social problems and nonprofit organizations, and then make decisions about investing funds in them. This represents the first study of student philanthropy in the criminal justice education literature and the first quasi-experimental study of student philanthropy in the higher-education literature. Specifically, it examines the impact of student philanthropy on students beliefs, interest, learning, and intended behavior by analyzing pretest and posttest data for students who participated in a philanthropy experience (experimental group), relative to students who did not participate (comparison group). Key findings include: those who participated in the student philanthropy project were significantly more likely to be aware of organizations in their community, and change scores support the differences between the experimental and comparison groups regarding social problem awareness. Introduction Student philanthropy is a teaching strategy started about 10 years ago and used increasingly at colleges and universities in the USA (Millisor & Olberding, 2009). Student philanthropy has been the focus of a number of studies in academic journals (e.g. Ahmed & Olberding, 2007/2008; Irvin, 2005; Millisor & Olberding, 2009; Olberding, 2009; Sigler, 2006; Smith & Brooks, 2009); however, it has not been addressed in criminal justice journals. Further, the existing studies of student philanthropy in other disciplines have used a single-cell research design that is, data only from participating students (experimental group) at the end of the semester (posttest). The current study uses experimental and comparison groups as well as pretest and posttest data. This quasi-experimental research design is used to control as much as possible external factors, such as maturation and history, and to isolate as much as ISSN print/ online/11/xxxxxx-xx Ó 2011 Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences DOI: /

3 2 MCDONALD AND OLBERDING possible the impact of the philanthropy experience on students awareness of social problems and nonprofit organizations in the community, beliefs that they have a responsibility to help others and they can make a difference in the world, interest in the course and learning, and intentions to donate money to charity and volunteer. The article begins by providing a review of the literature on student philanthropy and service learning. It then discusses the university and student philanthropy program that is the focus of this study Northern Kentucky University (NKU) and the Mayerson Student Philanthropy Project. The article describes the teaching of a particular criminal justice course at NKU, called Race, Gender and Crime, for which one of the authors incorporated the Mayerson project into two sections (experimental group) and did not incorporate it into two other sections (comparison group). The article presents mean change scores as well as ordinal regression results for the experimental and comparison groups regarding students awareness, beliefs, interest, learning, and intended behaviors. It ends with a discussion of the findings and how they fit into the criminal justice education literature and the broader higher-education literature. What is Student Philanthropy? Literature Review Student philanthropy has been defined as an experiential learning approach that provides students with the opportunity to study social problems and nonprofit organizations, and then make decisions about investing funds in them (Olberding, 2009, p. 463). Student philanthropy was developed at one or two institutions of higher education about 10 years ago; therefore, it is a relatively new teaching strategy. Despite its newness, student philanthropy has been adopted by faculty at more than 40 colleges and universities in the USA (Millisor & Olberding, 2009). And it seems that use of this pedagogy is on the rise. According to a survey of faculty and staff involved in a dozen student philanthropy efforts, a majority have plans to expand their current efforts. Further, this study found that student philanthropy has diffused from a few common disciplines, such as public administration and business, to other disciplines, including criminal justice. Further, it found that a majority of survey respondents said they have been contacted by other colleges and universities interested in starting their own student philanthropy program or course (Millisor & Olberding, 2009). There are at least two models of student philanthropy: (1) the traditional direct giving model approach and (2) the indirect giving model (Olberding, 2009; Olberding, Neikirk, & Ng, 2010). Started in the late 1990s, the traditional direct giving approach provides a certain amount of funds to one or more classes each semester and then students decide in which nonprofit organizations to invest the funds. More specifically, the students research social needs and nonprofit organizations, invite a number of nonprofits to apply for grants

4 LEARNING BY GIVING 3 through a Request for Proposal process, evaluate applications or proposals, and make collective decisions about which ones to fund. This model is known as direct giving since students have the responsibility of making decisions that directly impact the funding of nonprofits (Olberding et al., 2010, p. 14). The traditional direct giving model is most often implemented in the classroom for academic credit, but it has been implemented through special student organizations at a few universities, including the Students in Philanthropy club at Midland College and the Student Philanthropy Council at Colgate University (Student Philanthropy Council, 2007; Students in Philanthropy, 2007). The more recent indirect giving model, which was developed at NKU in 2007, partners a class with a corporation or foundation. Students evaluate real grant proposals submitted by nonprofit organizations to the corporation or foundation and make funding recommendations; ultimately, the corporate or foundation board makes the final funding decisions, hence the phrase indirect giving (Olberding, 2009; Olberding et al., 2010). In recent years, student philanthropy has become the focus of programs that cross-university boundaries and state borders. One program is Students4Giving, which is a partnership between Campus Compact a national coalition of more than 1,000 college and university presidents dedicated to service learning and civic engagement and the Fidelity Charitable Gift Fund an independent public charity with a mission of furthering the American tradition of philanthropy (Olberding et al., 2010). With this program, students participate in both fundraising and grant-making, for which they create a charitable mission statement, research community issues, assess the ability of nonprofit organizations to address these issues, and learn to manage charitable funds to achieve philanthropic goals (Olberding et al., 2010, p. 19). Another student philanthropy program involving multiple universities is Pay It Forward, which was launched in 2009 by the Kentucky Campus Compact, the Ohio Campus Compact, and the Michigan Campus Compact. Pay It Forward seeks to distribute $1.4 million through 162 student philanthropy classes over 3 years (Olberding et al., 2010). It is based on the traditional direct giving model approach with the requirement that each student in a Pay It Forward class volunteers a minimum of 15 h. Goals and Outcomes of Student Philanthropy Olberding (2009) reviewed the literature on student philanthropy and service learning as well as descriptions of student philanthropy programs and courses on university web sites. The following goals of student philanthropy were identified: enhancing students awareness of social problems and nonprofits in the community; influencing their attitudes, interests, intentions, and behaviors related to civic engagement and social responsibility;

5 4 MCDONALD AND OLBERDING increasing their knowledge of philanthropic processes, particularly grantseeking and grant-making; enhancing their understanding of the academic content of the course by integrating theory and practice; and improving their critical thinking, communication, leadership, and other work-life skills. There is some empirical evidence that student philanthropy programs and courses have made progress toward these goals. Ahmed and Olberding (2007/ 2008) analyzed data from nearly 1,000 students who participated in the direct giving model of student philanthropy at NKU from 2000 to The authors found that the program impacted a majority of participating students, including making them more aware of social problems (89.6%) and nonprofit organizations (94.9%), increasing their sense of responsibility to help others in need (88.6%), and enhancing their intentions to donate money to charity (83.7%) and volunteer (82.6%). According to Olberding (2009), a majority of students participating in NKU s indirect giving model indicated the program helped them learn the curriculum (75.7%), apply course principles (75.7%), and gain academic skills or knowledge (62.1%). Student Philanthropy as Service Learning Student philanthropy can be considered a form of service learning. A definition of service learning that seems to be well-accepted in the literature is a form of experiential education in which students engage in activities that address human and community needs together with structured opportunities intentionally designed to promote student learning and development (Jacoby, 1996, p. 5). Student philanthropy engages students in the community with structured opportunities to promote learning about community needs and nonprofit organizations, ultimately resulting in students investing funds in one or more organizations. Some student philanthropy classes engage the students in service or volunteer work beyond their researching problems and nonprofits, evaluating grant applications and making collective funding decisions. At NKU, for example, classes have supplemented their financial investments with gifts of time and talent, such as creating short videos on the nonprofit for its web site or YouTube, developing volunteer management proposals and creating marketing plans (Olberding et al., 2010). And, as discussed above, the Pay It Forward program requires each student involved in one of its classes to volunteer for at least 15 h at a nonprofit organization during that particular semester. Service Learning in Higher Education Research indicates that service learning can have a positive impact on students academic learning and skill development (Astin & Sax, 1998; Cohen

6 LEARNING BY GIVING 5 & Kinsey, 1994; Dicke, Dowden, & Torres, 2004; Eyler & Giles, 1999; Reinke, 2003; Rockquemore & Schaffer, 2000; Vogelgesang & Astin, 2000). Evaluations of a graduate course on public private partnerships at Texas Tech University revealed 67 percent of students reported that the service-learning project had helped them gain a better understanding of the course material and 100% of the students reported that service learning had improved their leadership skills (Dicke et al., 2004, p. 204). However, evidence is varied when it comes to assessing the impact of service learning on students feelings of civic responsibility and public service and on their level of civic engagement (Astin & Sax, 1998; Dicke et al., 2004; Eyler, Giles, & Braxton, 1997; Eyler et al., 1999; Markus, Howard, & King, 1993; Myers- Lipton, 1998; Parker-Gwin & Mabry, 1998; Reinke, 2003; Rhoads, 1997). An Institute for Research on Higher Education study of 33,000 students who participated in service learning nationwide found 65 percent of respondents indicated that it was important to very important to participate in volunteer work (Reinke, 2003, p. 131). However, in the public private partnership course at Texas Tech only 33 percent of students reported that their sense of civic responsibility had been enhanced through the experience (Dicke et al., 2004, p. 204). Service Learning in Criminal Justice Education The criminal justice literature has a number of articles on service learning that provide a foundation for this study of student philanthropy. Some criminal justice scholars assert that service learning enhances students overall learning by bringing to life material in textbooks that, otherwise, would not be as interesting or relevant. [S]tudents often want to see firsthand that the concepts, principles and ideas they are learning are relevant to the real world (Hartmus, Cauthen, & Levine, 2006, p. 327). Others say service learning is beneficial to students because it requires them to use critical thinking skills and apply knowledge in real-world situations. Those prepared to apply their criminal justice classroom experience to the real world will be better equipped to successfully make the transition into their criminal justice career. A servicelearning pedagogy aids this transition by placing students in the community with the support of the community and the strong academic foundation working simultaneously (Penn, 2006, p. 381). An example of a service-learning project is a restorative justice course at Rowan University that brought together 12 college students and 12 incarcerated youth (Vigorita, 2002). One goal was to enhance college students learning about juvenile corrections and their tolerance of youth offenders. An evaluation found that the experience had positive impacts on college students in terms of their knowledge of juvenile corrections, career plans, open-mindedness, and acceptance of juvenile offenders (Vigorita, 2002). On another front, City University s John Jay College of Criminal Justice developed a service-learning project with the New York Office of Court Administration and

7 6 MCDONALD AND OLBERDING the Fund for Modern Courts, which is a nonprofit court reform organization (Hartmus et al., 2006). Students served as court monitors of local criminal courts, and judges and court administrators came to the classroom to serve as guest speakers. Hartmus et al. (2006) concluded that the service-learning project enriched students understanding of the courts beyond academic descriptions of judicial processes and increased their sense of civic responsibility. Hirschinger-Blank and Markowitz (2006) examined a service-learning project for which undergraduate students in a juvenile delinquency course tutored and played educational games with youth at a county juvenile detention center. Based on a content analysis of students answers to essay questions, the authors found that a majority of students learned how to apply academic theory to real-life experiences, discovered ways to work with youth, gained career insights, experienced a reduction in stereotypes, and became more positive and sympathetic to the youths. The authors concluded that service learning is one strategy that provides students with an opportunity to gain a realistic understanding of the causes and consequences of juvenile delinquency and juvenile justice policy (Hirschinger-Blank & Markowitz, 2006, p. 69). A common limitation of service-learning research in criminal justice education and higher education in general is that it is often not experimental or quasi-experimental in nature. Vigorita (2002, p. 424) succinctly explained the problem: Of course, without an experimental design, it is difficult to assess whether the changes were caused by the course material, exposure to the youth, or other causal factors. In discussing directions for future studies, Hirschinger-Blank and Markowitz (2006) added that there is a need for preservice and post-service quantitative evaluations to confirm that change has occurred as well as a comparison group to determine factors other than the service-learning project contributed to the changes. The current study of student philanthropy takes a step in this direction. NKU and the Mayerson Student Philanthropy Project Northern Kentucky University s (NKU) student philanthropy project is one of the oldest and most well-established in the country. It is one of the largest in terms of the number of disciplines and courses, students, nonprofit organizations, and funding levels. Since 1999, more than 2,000 students have participated in the Mayerson project in 40 different courses, including graduate courses in public administration, marketing, and public history as well as undergraduate courses in criminal justice, communication, environmental science, literature and language, marketing, philosophy, sociology, and theater. These classes have invested about $450,000 in 300 nonprofit programs or projects in the Greater Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky metropolitan area (Olberding et al., 2010). NKU s student philanthropy effort began in 1999 with a grant from the Manuel D. and Rhoda Mayerson Foundation. The Mayerson project is administered by NKU s Scripps Howard Center for Civic Engagement, which works to

8 LEARNING BY GIVING 7 connect campus and community in our region (Scripps Howard Center for Civic Engagement, n.d.). The Mayerson Student Philanthropy Project has the following parameters (Olberding et al., 2010): Faculty from all disciplines are invited to participate. No discipline or course has a monopoly on preparing students for civic participation. Each Mayerson class is provided with a sum of money between $1,000 and $4,500 to invest in community organizations with the 501(c)(3) designation. Faculty should use student philanthropy as a vehicle for teaching the subject matter, not as an add-on, so that students will come to realize that any academic discipline offers tools and concepts for identifying community needs and thinking about solutions. The Mayerson Student Philanthropy Project should afford students the valuable learning experience of engaging in meaningful and memorable interactions and discussions with nonprofit leaders and with classmates. Research Questions and Hypotheses The purpose of this research is to examine the degree to which students participation in a student philanthropy project impacts their awareness of social problems and nonprofit organizations in the community, their interest in the course and learning, and their intentions to participate in future philanthropy and service. The following research questions were addressed: (1) Does participation in student philanthropy increase awareness of social problems in their community? (2) Does participation in student philanthropy increase awareness of nonprofit organizations in the community? (3) Does participation in student philanthropy enhance interest in the course and learning? (4) Does participation in student philanthropy enhance intentions to participate in future philanthropy and service? The following hypotheses were proposed: H(1) Students who participate in a class with student philanthropy will become more aware of social problems in the community than those who participate in the same class without student philanthropy. H(2) Students who participate in a class with student philanthropy will become more aware of nonprofit organizations in the community than those who participate in the same class without student philanthropy. H(3) Students who participate in a class with student philanthropy will become more interested in the course and learning than those who participate in the same class without student philanthropy.

9 8 MCDONALD AND OLBERDING H(4) Students who participate in a class with student philanthropy will develop stronger intentions to participate in future philanthropy and service activities than those who participate in the same class without student philanthropy. Methods Our study focuses on the impacts of the Mayerson Student Philanthropy Project on students at NKU who participated through a lower-level general education course, titled Race, Gender and Crime, in the Fall 2009 and Spring 2010 semesters. The research design is quasi-experimental in nature; data were collected from both students who participated in student philanthropy (experimental group) and students who did not participate in it (comparison group) at the beginning of the semester (pretest) and at the end of the semester (posttest). During course registration, students were unaware that their section of the course had been selected to participate in the student philanthropy project. Each semester, both sections of the course were offered on the same days of the week. In all sections of the course, students were exposed to the same assignments, readings, lectures, and exams. However, each semester, one class participated in the Mayerson project (experimental group) and the other section of the course did not (comparison group). The comparison group was assigned a research paper related to a topic covered in the course, while the experimental group was assigned a research paper related to the Mayerson project and a topic in the course. The students in the experimental group were told they were involved in the Mayerson project on the first day of class as a part of the course introduction. The instructor explained that during the semester the students would have the opportunity to participate in this project and they would have the chance to distribute a total of $2,000 to one or two local nonprofit organizations in the Northern Kentucky/Greater Cincinnati region. During this same time, the instructor contacted five local nonprofit organizations in the area whose mission aligned with the topics discussed in the course and asked them to participate in the Mayerson project. Next, the agencies were asked to complete a grant application provided by NKU s Scripps Howard Center for Civic Engagement that included information such as mission, targeted population, and a description of what the organization would do with the grant if they were selected for it. The organizations also were asked to submit additional relevant materials if they were available. Most organizations submitted newsletters, brochures, newspaper articles, etc. The instructor placed all of the application materials in a file in blackboard (an internet-based course management system), so students could easily access the materials. Each student in the Mayerson class was asked to write a one-page report on each of the five nonprofit agencies, answering specific questions the instructor had provided. After writing these reports, the student was asked to rank the

10 LEARNING BY GIVING 9 top three organizations and support their decision. On the day the paper was due, the instructor placed the students in groups of five and asked them, as a group, to rank the top three organizations. The instructor tallied all of the groups votes and announced the top three organizations to the class. Next, the instructor contacted representatives of the top three nonprofit organizations and asked them to come to class and give a 15-min presentation on their organization including its mission, how they accomplish their mission, what they would do with the grant if they received it, and opportunities for students to volunteer at their agency. After all of the agencies presented to the class, the instructor again placed the students into groups of five where they were tasked with making two decisions. First, they had to rank order the three organizations. Second, they had to decide whether to award $2,000 to the top group or $1,000 each to the top two organizations. The instructor tallied the group votes and informed the nonprofits of the students decisions. During the first week of the class, for both the fall and spring semesters, a representative of the Scripps Howard Center distributed pretest surveys to the students in the experimental and comparison groups during a regularly scheduled class period. The pretest survey consisted of the same questions for both the control and experimental groups. There was only one difference between the pretest surveys for the experimental and comparison groups the language on the consent form. The pretest consent form for the experimental group discussed the Mayerson Student Philanthropy Project (see Appendix for pre and posttest survey questions), while the pretest consent form for the comparison group discussed teaching methods in a generic manner. The posttest survey for both the experimental and comparison groups were the same for questions Questions and 50 for the experimental group assessed the Mayerson project directly and were not included in the posttest survey for the comparison group. Questions on the posttest survey for the experimental group were similar to questions on the posttest survey for the comparison group, with the exception that direct reference to the Mayerson project was left out for the comparison group. Independent Variable The independent variable philanthropy was used to better understand the differences between those who participated in the student philanthropy experience and those who did not. This variable was coded as 0 for those who did not participate and 1 for those who did participate. Dependent Variables The dependent variable social problem awareness was used to better understand if students who participated in the experimental group were more likely

11 10 MCDONALD AND OLBERDING to be aware of social problems in their community than students in the comparison group (Ahmed & Olberding 2007/2008). Social problem awareness was measured using question 5 from the pre/posttest (I am aware of the needs and problems of people living in Northern Kentucky and Greater Cincinnati) and question 20 from the posttest (Your awareness of the needs and problems addressed in this class). Question 5 was used to better understand the differences between the experimental and comparison group prior to participating and after participating in the control and experimental groups. Question 20 from the posttest was used to assess the direct effect of the class on one s awareness of social problems. The dependent variable nonprofit awareness was used to better understand if students who participated in the experimental group were more likely to be aware of nonprofit organizations than students in the comparison group (Ahmed & Olberding, 2007/2008). Nonprofit awareness was measured using question 6 (I am aware of nonprofit organizations in Northern Kentucky and Greater Cincinnati) and question 16 (I plan to seek a career in a nonprofit organization) from the pre/posttest and question 21 (Your awareness of nonprofit organizations in Northern Kentucky and Greater Cincinnati) and question 35 (Your consideration of a career in the nonprofit sector) from the posttest. Questions 6 and 16 were used to better understand the differences between the experimental and comparison group prior to participating and after participating in the control and experimental groups. Questions 21 and 35 from the posttest were used to assess the direct effect of the class on one s awareness of nonprofits. The dependent variable learning was used to better understand if students who participated in the experimental group were more likely to be interested in the course and learning than students in the comparison group (Olberding, 2009). Learning was measured using question 7 (I am interested in this course) and question 9 (I want to stay in college or complete my degree) from the pre/posttest and questions (Your interest in this course; Your interest in taking another course with student philanthropy or service learning; Your learning of the material in this course; Your application of information and ideas from this course; Your academic skills or knowledge; The development of your functional life skills, like communications, assertiveness, and decision making) and question 34 from the posttest (Your sense of purpose or direction in life). Questions 7 and 9 were used to better understand the differences between the experimental and comparison group prior to participating and after participating in the control and experimental groups. Questions and 34 from the posttest were used to assess the direct effect of the class on interest in the course and learning. The dependent variable philanthropy/service was used to better understand if students who participated in the experimental group were more interested in philanthropy and service than students in the comparison group (Ahmed & Olberding, 2007/2008). Philanthropy/service was measured using question 8 (I am interested in student philanthropy or service learning),

12 LEARNING BY GIVING 11 questions (I am interested in belonging to and participating actively in a group or association; I plan to work with someone or some group to solve problems in my community; I have a responsibility to help others in need; I have a personal responsibility to the community in which I live; I believe I can make a difference in the world; I intend to volunteer in the future) and questions (I will personally walk, run, or bicycle for a charitable cause; I plan to help raise money for a charitable cause; I plan to donate money to charity in the future) from the pre/posttest and questions (Your belief that you have a responsibility to help others in need; Your sense of personal responsibility to the community in which you live; Your interest in community service; Your intention to work on behalf of social justice; Your belief that you can make a difference in the world) and questions (Your interest in belonging to and participating actively in a group or association; Your plans to work with someone or some group to solve problems in your community; Your intention to volunteer; Your intention to donate money to a charitable cause; Your plans to personally walk, run or bicycle for a charitable cause; Your plans to raise money for a charitable cause; The actual amount of funds that you currently donate to charitable organizations; The actual amount of time that you currently volunteer) from the posttest. Questions 8, and were used to better understand the differences between the experimental and comparison group prior to participating and after participating in the control and experimental groups. Questions and from the posttest were used to assess the direct effect of the class on one s participation or interest in philanthropy and service. All of the dependent variable pre/posttest questions (questions 5-19) were coded so 1 was strongly disagree, 2 was disagree, 3 was neutral, 4 was agree, and 5 was strongly agree. The posttest only questions (questions 20-43) were coded so 1 was very negative, 2 was negative, 3 was no effect, 4 was positive, and 5 was very positive. Data Analysis Survey responses were entered into Excel files by a student worker in the Scripps Howard Center, and these data were later transferred to SPSS. Descriptive statistics, gender, age, race/ethnicity, and year in school, were used to provide an overview of the respondents involved in the study and to identify similarities and differences between those in the experimental and comparison groups. Next, change scores were calculated to see if there were differences between the experimental and comparison groups when examining pretest and posttest scores for the dependent variables social problem awareness, nonprofit awareness, learning, and philanthropy/service. Change scores were used because the mean pretest scores were similar for both the experimental and comparison groups for survey questions This similarity between pretest scores suggested there was little difference between the two groups prior to

13 12 MCDONALD AND OLBERDING participating in the Mayerson Student Philanthropy Project (Vickers & Altman, 2001). The change scores were calculated by subtracting the pre-score from the post-score for survey questions The pretest, posttest, and change score means were calculated for questions 5-19 from the survey using the factor/independent variable philanthropy. An independent sample t-test and Mann Whitney U-test also were run to further examine the significance between the two groups using the independent variable philanthropy and the dependent variable change score. Ordinal regression was used to analyze the relationship between participation in student philanthropy and the dependent variables social problem awareness, nonprofit awareness, philanthropy/service, and learning, using posttest only questions The participant s interest in the course prior to participating in it was measured using pretest question 7 and included as a control variable in each ordinal regression analysis. This variable was controlled for because it had been found to be significantly related to the variable philanthropy in the bivariate correlation. The first question, Does participation in student philanthropy increase awareness of social problems in their community? was analyzed with the dependent variable, social problem awareness, being regressed on the independent variable philanthropy to determine the effect of the Mayerson Student Philanthropy Project on one s awareness of social problems. Social problem awareness was measured using question 20 from the posttest. The second question, Does participation in student philanthropy increase awareness of nonprofit organizations in the community? was analyzed with the dependent variable, nonprofit awareness, being regressed on the independent variable philanthropy to examine the effect of the Mayerson Student Philanthropy Project on one s awareness of nonprofit organizations. Nonprofit awareness was measured using questions 21 and 35 from the posttest. The third question, Does participation in student philanthropy enhance interest in the course and learning? was analyzed with the dependent variable learning being regressed on the independent variable philanthropy to determine the effect of the Mayerson Student Philanthropy Project on one s interest in the course and learning. Learning was measured using questions and 34 from the posttest. The fourth question, Does participation in student philanthropy enhance intentions to participate in future philanthropy and service? was analyzed with the dependent variable philanthropy/service being regressed on the independent variable philanthropy to examine the effect of the Mayerson Student Philanthropy Project on one s intentions to participate in future philanthropy and service. Philanthropy/service was measured using questions and from the posttest. Qualitative comments from the posttest survey also were examined using questions from the experimental posttest survey and questions 44 and 45 in the control posttest survey. Content analysis was used to code qualitative comments to draw conclusions. The qualitative comments were used to provide deeper insight to better understand the experiences of the students.

14 LEARNING BY GIVING 13 Results Student Characteristics Over the course of two semesters, a total of 123 students participated in this research study with 57% of the students (n = 70) participating in the Mayerson Student Philanthropy Project (experimental group) and 43% of the students (n = 53) not participating in the Mayerson project (comparison group). During the fall semester, a total of 32 students were involved in the experimental group, while 34 were included in the comparison group. In the spring semester, a total of 38 students were in the experimental group and 19 were in the comparison group. As Table 1 indicates, the comparison group had a higher percentage of males, where 63% were male (n = 33) and 37% were female (n = 19), while the experimental group was more evenly distributed with 52% male (n = 34) and 48% female (n = 32). The majority of those who participated in this study reported their race as white (n = 107). In both groups, most were between the ages of 18 and 25 (n = 107). The most commonly reported years in school were sophomore (n = 44) followed by freshman (n = 36). Change Score Results Three questions were found to have a change score mean with a difference between the two groups of 0.4 or more (see Table 2). The remaining pretest questions (questions 1-4, 7-11, and 13-19) had a change score mean of 0.3 or less. Question 5 was designed to measure problem awareness i.e. I am aware of the needs and problems of people living in Northern Kentucky and Greater Cincinnati. Change score means indicated that those who participated in student philanthropy were more likely to be aware of social problems in their community than those who did not. Participating students had a mean change score of 0.77, while non-participating students had a mean change score of 0.2. The t-test and the Mann Whitney U-test for question 5 also confirmed there was a significant difference between the two groups when using the change score as the dependent variable. Question 6 was designed to measure nonprofit awareness i.e. I am aware of nonprofit organizations in Northern Kentucky and Greater Cincinnati. Change score means indicated that those who participated in student philanthropy were more likely to be aware of nonprofit organizations in their community than those who did not. Participating students had a mean change score of 1.19, while non-participating students had a mean change score of The t-test and the Mann Whitney U-test for question 6 also confirmed there was a significant difference between the two groups when using the change score as the dependent variable. Question 12 was designed to measure philanthropy/service i.e. I have a responsibility to help others in need. Change score means indicated that those who participated in student

15 14 MCDONALD AND OLBERDING Table 1 Cross tabulation for demographic characteristics and participation in student philanthropy Participants (experimental group) Non-participants (control group) Total Gender Male 51.51% 63.46% 56.78% (n = 34) (n = 33) (n = 67) Female 48.49% 36.54% 43.22% (n = 32) (n = 19) (n = 51) Total 100% 100% 100% (n=66) (n=52) (n=118) Race/ethnicity White 90.90% 92.16% 91.45% (n = 60) (n = 47) (n = 107) African or American 4.55% 3.92% 4.27% (n =3) (n =2) (n =5) Hispanic or Latnio 1.52% 0% 0.86% (n =1) (n =0) (n =1) Native Hawaiian or Pacific 0% 1.96% 0.86% (n =0) (n =1) (n =1) Other 3.03% 1.96% 2.56% (n=2) (n =1) (n =3) Total 100% 100% 100% (n = 66) (n = 51) (n = 117) Age < % 0% 1.70% (n =2) (n =0) (n =2) % 96.15% 90.67% (n = 57) (n = 50) (n = 107) % 0% 4.23% (n =5) (n =0) (n =5) % 0% 1.70% (n =2) (n =0) (n =2) 45 or older 0% 3.85% 1.70% (n =0) (n =2) (n =2) Total 100% 100% 100% (n = 66) (n = 52) (n = 118) Year in school Freshman 39.40% 19.23% 30.51% (n = 26) (n = 10) (n = 36) (Continued)

16 LEARNING BY GIVING 15 Table 1 (Continued) Participants (experimental group) Non-participants (control group) Total Sophomore 28.78% 48.08% 37.29% (n = 19) (n = 25) (n = 44) Junior 27.27% 25.00% 26.27% (n = 18) (n = 13) (n = 31) Senior 4.55% 7.69% 5.93% (n =3) (n =4) (n =7) Total 100% 100% 100% (n = 66) (n = 52) (n = 118) Table 2 Means, standard deviations, and change scores for student philanthropy participants and non-participants on social problem awareness, nonprofit awareness, and philanthropy/service Pretest Posttest Change scores M SD M SD M SD Social problem awareness (question 5) Participants (experimental) Non-participants (control) Nonprofit awareness (question 6) Participants (experimental) Non-participants (control) Philanthropy/service (question 12) Participants (experimental) Non-participants (control) *t-test and Mann Whitney U-test significant at philanthropy were more likely to believe they had a responsibility to help others in their community than those who did not. Participating students had a mean change score of 0.34, while non-participating students had a mean change score of However, the t-test and the Mann Whitney U-test for question 12 did not find a significant difference between the two groups when using the change score as the dependent variable. Bivariate Results An estimated correlation matrix that included all of the pretest questions (questions 5-19) as well as the variables philanthropy (0 = no, 1 = yes), race (0 = nonwhite, 1 = white), age (0 = less than 17, 1 = 18-25, 2 = 26-35, 3 = 36-45,

17 16 MCDONALD AND OLBERDING 4 = over 45), gender (0 = female, 1 = male), and year in school (1 = freshman, 2 = sophomore, 3 = junior, 4 = senior) is presented in Table 3. The bivariate correlations were examined to determine if there were any significant differences between the experimental group (philanthropy = 1) and comparison group (philanthropy = 0) prior to participating in the course. Interest in the course prior to taking it was the only variable that was significantly related to the variable philanthropy. Those students in classes with a philanthropy experience tended to have greater interest in the course than those students in classes without a philanthropy experience. So the variable prior interest in the course was controlled when examining multivariate analyses to reduce sampling bias. Multivariate Results The first hypothesis states that students who participate in a class with student philanthropy will become more aware of social problems in the community than those who participate in the same class without student philanthropy. Ordinal regression was used to examine the relationship between the philanthropy experience and social awareness, while controlling for interest in the course prior to taking it. Neither the independent or control variable was found to be significant and the overall model was not found to be a good fit suggesting that other factors impact social problem awareness. The second hypothesis states that students who participate in a class with student philanthropy will become more aware of nonprofit organizations in the community than those who participate in the same class without student philanthropy. Ordinal regression was used to examine the relationship between the philanthropy experience and nonprofit awareness, while controlling for interest in the course prior to taking it. A significant relationship was found between the philanthropy experience and awareness of nonprofit organizations in Northern Kentucky and Greater Cincinnati. The likelihood ratio test of the model found it to be a good fit and significant at (see Table 4). However, in the model examining interest in nonprofit careers, neither the independent variable nor the control variable was significant. The third hypothesis states that students who participate in a class with student philanthropy will become more interested in the course and learning than those who participate in the same class without student philanthropy. Ordinal regression was used to determine the relationship between the philanthropy experience and a few learning variables, while controlling for interest in the course prior to taking it. In models with application of information and ideas from this course and desire to stay in college and complete a degree, there was not a significant relationship between philanthropy and these two dependent variables, nor between the control variable and the dependent variables. In models with interest in taking another course with student philanthropy; service learning and development of functional life skills; or academic skills or

18 LEARNING BY GIVING 17 Table 3 Estimated correlations between all the variables Variable (1) Philanthropy 1.00 (2) Gender (3) Age (4) Race (5) Year (6) Q (7) Q (8) Q (9) Q (10) Q (11) Q (12) Q (13) Q (14) Q (15) Q (16) Q (17) Q (18) Q (19) Q (20) Q (Continued)

19 18 MCDONALD AND OLBERDING Table 3 (Continued) Variable (11) Q (12) Q (13) Q (14) Q (15) Q (16) Q (17) Q (18) Q (19) Q (20) Q Note. N s are between 114 and 120. p < 0.05, p < 0.01.

20 LEARNING BY GIVING 19 Table 4 Ordinal regression estimates for the determinants of nonprofit awareness (question 21), interest in learning (question 22 and 24), and philanthropy/service (question 37) Nonprofit awareness question 21 Interest in learning question 22 Interest in learning question 24 Phil./service question 37 Variable Estimate Wald Estimate Wald Estimate Wald Estimate Wald Intercept Intercept Intercept Intercept Philanthropy Pre-course interest Pre-course interest Pre-course interest Pre-course interest p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p <

21 20 MCDONALD AND OLBERDING knowledge, only the control variable was significant for those who responded neutral or agree. The likelihood ratio test revealed that only two of the three models, the interest for taking another course with student philanthropy and academic skills or knowledge, were found to be a good fit and significant. A significant and slightly negative relationship was found between the philanthropy experience and the following dependent variables: interest in the course and learning of the material in the course (see Table 4). The likelihood ratio test revealed both models were a good fit and significant. The fourth hypothesis states that students who participate in a class with student philanthropy will develop stronger intentions to participate in future philanthropy and service activities than those who participate in the same class without student philanthropy. Ordinal regression was used to determine the relationship between the philanthropy experience and interest in philanthropy/service, while controlling for interest in the course prior to taking it. The control variable was significant when examining two variables: (1) your interest in belonging to and participating actively in a group or association and (2) your plans to work with someone or some group to solve problems in your community (see Table 4). However, the likelihood ratio test revealed that only the model that included your plans to work with someone or solve problems in your community was a good fit and significant. None of the other models were found to be significant. Qualitative Results Qualitative comments provided by students provide greater depth into our understanding of their experiences. Question 44 (control posttest) and question 47 (experimental posttest) asks, Please discuss the most significant things you learned this semester about social problems, nonprofit organizations, or the philanthropy process. (Please use a few sentences to elaborate on your response.) The majority of students in both the experimental (n = 47) and comparison groups (n = 46) mentioned becoming aware of social problems. This is not surprising since this is a general education class on the topics of race, gender, and crime. This class is intended to expose students to problems faced by racial/ethnic minorities and/or females as they move through the criminal justice system. However, there were differences between the two groups. Students who participated in student philanthropy (the experimental group) discussed how they became aware of the social problems in their own community of which they previously had been unaware, while students who did not participate (comparison group) discussed broad social problems that were topics specifically discussed in the class. Philanthropy Student #6: The most significant thing I learned was how many people in my community alone need help and that there tons of ways I can get involved in helping.

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