On Project Management Scheduling where Human Resource is a Critical Variable 1

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1 On Project Management Scheduling where Human Resource is a Critical Variable 1 Valentina Plekhanova Macquarie University, School of Mathematics, Physics, Computing and Electronics, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia valentin@mpce.mq.edu.au Abstract. Most traditional approaches to process modelling do not provide an analysis of critical human resources and their impact(s) on project performance and output quality. However, the ability of a software organisation to take on a new project (and its success) depends to a large extent on the capability, rather than, availability of resources. Since in contrast with software process models, project management deals with resources, software process modelling can be provided by project schedule simulation. Nevertheless, contemporary project management scheduling approaches cannot be sufficiently used for software projects, because they are concerned with resource availability and utilisation, and do not provide study, analysis and management of resource capabilities and compatibilities. 1 Introduction The past three decades have been marked by rapid growth of the software industry. The necessity to find better ways to produce software products of high quality and within budget has lead to considerable research efforts investigating new means for improving an organisation s ability to plan, forecast, manage, implement, and control its activities in projects where people and their capabilities have a major impact on project performance and its quality. Thus, the research community has provided organisations with a considerable variety of software process models, project management techniques and tools. Nevertheless, there is general recognition, both in academia and practice [5, 9, 10], that the existing software process models have had little practical effect on the design and 1 Plekhanova, V., On Project Management Scheduling where Human Resource is a Critical Variable, Proceedings of the Sixth European Workshop on Software Process Technology (EWSPT-6), Lecture Notes in Computer Science series, Springer-Verlag, pp , September 16-18, 1998, London, UK

2 effectiveness of software processes where human resource is a critical variable. There are several benefits that have been suggested for utilising process modelling [6,11]. The main ones are (but not limited to): facilitating reasoning and communication about the process; analysing, studying, controlling and managing the process; and determining ways in which the process may be improved. It is acknowledged that software projects have to be conceived under very tight technological, cost, time, human resource, and many other constraints, that define the limiting conditions of process development. However, contemporary process models ignore the impact of human, organisational, social and other aspects on software development and describe observable activities (for software creation and evolution) in ideal conditions. This fact determines the primary limitations of these approaches to process development [10, 4]. Existing process models [8, 2, 1] represent various projects goal(s) and this defines an ordering of project (tasks) activities. In contrast with software process models, project management deals with resources. Moreover, it is used as a means to provide planning, organisation, direction and control of resources in order to meet an organisation s objectives by a specific date and within a well-defined budget. Project management involves the application of limited resources to the completion of tasks in the most effective and efficient manner. A pivotal problem of project management is to find the best trade-offs among resources. Support for the co-ordination of people, tasks, equipment, products, time and money is provided by project management scheduling. Therefore, a specific incorporation of project management scheduling into process modelling frameworks may eliminate the primarily limitations of existing process models. 2 Process Modelling via Project Management Schedule Simulation In general, schedules are presented by lists of tasks and project activities, the relationships between those activities, dates when those tasks are to be performed, duration of those tasks, a set of defined goals, a set of relevant resources and other information related to the timing of project activities. There is some underlying similarity between a process model and a project plan/schedule. They both embody project goal(s), job descriptions, and ordering of project activities. If project plan defines a method (order or system) of doing project tasks in order to achieve project objectives, project scheduling provides a timing of project plan. Time as a variable is incorporated into the project schedule, while time as a (quality) characteristic may be represented in work scope and/or resource requirements (when time as a resource). From this viewpoint, a project plan may be considered as an instance of a static process model and a (static) project management schedule as a quasi-static process model, which is a discrete dynamic representation of project variables. A comparison of general aspects of contemporary approaches to process development shows that project management schedules have many advantages over

3 existing software process models. In particular, a project management schedule naturally incorporates many project-related aspects that may influence process development and facilitate better understanding and reasoning about process. A schedule embodies project resources: human, time, technical, kind of equipment, and other specific facilities. Moreover, project scheduling is a management tool and supports resource co-ordination. Furthermore, psychological, social and organisational aspects may be captured by the project management scheduling framework via human factors. In addition, schedule is flexible to reflect changes on a current basis. Altering schedules can alter the need for resources and, hence, alter team structure, people capabilities required, and the timing of resource needs. That is, an instance of process model is prone to altering during project execution. This view on process modelling via project scheduling provides capturing even the small changes during process development. Thus, software process modelling may be provided by project schedule simulation. Therefore, we need to consider how well contemporary project management scheduling approaches (objectives, methods, and mechanisms) are suited for use in software development practice. 3 Outlines of Contemporary Project Management Approaches There are some underlying differences between software projects and projects where human resource quality is not a critical component. In particular, the specific character of software tasks is such that, in many cases, tasks cannot be expedited (or in some cases even solved) by human resource reallocations or by adding extra resources. That is, software tasks are not resource-driven. These tasks cannot be defined as fixed-duration tasks because they are dependent first of all on people knowledge/skill capabilities which are different. The vast majority of software tasks are cognitively driven (self-managing intellectual work). They are individual, creative tasks. Thus, for example, software tasks such as coding are managed by individuals, rather than being administratively managed. For this reason, a detailed job description, in many cases, is really impossible to define and is really not important for successful task completion. This type of task involves a unique set of knowledge/skill capabilities. Thus, in order to oversee a software task, an individual has to possess a number of key knowledge/skill-related factors an integration of which allows the completion of task performance. Because of that, a software development team is defined as a predetermined capability resource pool for project performance. There is a risk of selecting people to do work because they are available, not because they have the required set of knowledge/skills. Therefore, the ability of a software organisation to take on a new project depends to a large extent on the (knowledge/skill, learning) capability, rather than, availability of resources. Traditional approaches to project management are founded on job-based approaches where resource scheduling are built around job/activity descriptions. Managing a software project where human resource is a critical variable is quite different from

4 managing a project where detailed job description is a first priority task. In the former case a manager s core focus is on management of people capabilities, while in the later case a project manager is concerned with how to get thing done. People (knowledge/skill, learning) capabilities and resource compatibilities have a major influence on definition and scheduling of cost, time, productivity and team structure in projects where human resource is a critical variable. Thus, determination of people capabilities, resource compatibilities, team structure, resource allocation, and their impact on process development becomes extremely important aspect for software projects and defines resource-based project management problems. However, contemporary approaches to project management scheduling [7] are based on the detailed work scope definitions assuming that a resource pool is given and/or defined by a manager and is capable of performing any project task. Scheduling mechanisms are based on resource reallocation and adding extra resources for any type of project tasks: resource-driven, fixed-duration tasks or cognitively driven tasks. 2 Existing resource scheduling methods, both heuristic and optimisation, address the issues of resource availability and utilisation, and are not concerned with the capability and compatibility of project resources. Furthermore, in traditional scheduling approaches, the objectives for the allocation of limited resources are to determine the allocation of resources that maximises total benefits subject to the limited resource availability [7]. Contemporary approaches to resource allocation are founded on the assumption that different jobs require equal capability resources, and only one skill is involved. Hence, they cannot be successfully used for software projects, where different software tasks require different sets of multiple knowledge/skill capabilities for a task performance. In the mathematical theory of scheduling [3] resource-based problems are isolated from scheduling process and, hence, resource capability factors are not considered as the factors that influence the schedule. In practice, the most effective and efficient manner of resource application in software projects is founded on heuristic approaches - heuristic analogical reasoning. This kind of approaches are highly dependant on a manager s intuition, which is, in turn, based on his/her experience with not only project management area in general, but also with people who oversee a project. There is an increased usage of skill-related information in practice. Nevertheless, organisations still do not have formal methods/techniques for processing this information. Thus, objectives, methods, and mechanisms provided by contemporary project management scheduling approaches cannot be sufficiently used in software practice. 2 This technique is used by such well-known tools as PERT, Microsoft Project, SAP and other project scheduling tools.

5 4 Conclusion Therefore, there is a need to: elaborate on evaluation techniques in order to provide support for effective solutions to resource-based problems, in particular, resource allocation, people (knowledge/skill, learning) capability metrics, resource compatibility metrics; analysis, comparison and management of resource capabilities develop new approaches to project management scheduling which provide the means for analysing human resource quality and its impact(s) on project performance and output quality integrate project management scheduling, which incorporates human, managerial, and organisational aspects, into the process modelling frameworks. The application of such an approach, is very much concerned with the improvement of project management quality via strategic management of employee skill capabilities. In particular, this approach provides the means for improving an organisation s ability to plan, forecast, manage, implement, and control its activities in projects where capability and compatibility of resources are critical aspects. Acknowledgement I would like to thank Ray Offen and Vincent Wiegel along with anonymous reviewers of this paper for their stimulating and insightful comments. References 1. Basili, V.R. and Turner, A.J., Iterative Enhancement: a Practical Technique for Software Development, IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, SE-1, (4), (1975) Boehm, B.W., A Spiral Model of Software Development and Enhancement, IEEE Computer, No. 21, (1988) Conway, R.W., Maxwell, W.L., and Miller, L.W.: Theory of Scheduling, Addison- Wesley Publishing Company, (1967) 4. Curtis, B., Hefley, W. and Miller, S., People Capability Maturity Model (CMU/SEI- 95-MM-02), Pittsburgh,PA: Software Engineering Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Dowson, M., Software Process Themes and Issues, Proceedings of the 2 nd International Conference of the Software Process: Continuous Software Process Improvement, Berlin, Germany, (1993) Kellner, M.I. and Hansen, G.A., Software Process Modeling: A Case Study, Proceedings of the 22 nd Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Vol. 2, (1989)

6 7. Meredith, J.R. and Mantel, JR, S.J., Project Management: A Managerial Approach, John Wiley&Sons, Inc., (1995) 8. Royce, W.W., Managing the Development of Large Software Systems: Concepts and Techniques, Proceedings of the 11 th International Conference on Software Engineering, Pittsburgh, (1989) Sachs, P., Transforming Work: Collaboration, Learning and Design, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 38, No. 9, (1995) Sommerville, I. and Rodden, T., Human, social and organisational influences on the software processes. In A. Fuggetta and A. Wolf (ed.), Software Process, Vol. 4 of Trends in Software., J. Wiley, Chapter 4, (1996) White, P., Process Modelling and Process Support, IOPENER, Vol. 1, No. 3, (1992) 7-8

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