Andragogical Skills & Microteaching

Transcription

1 Andragogical Skills & Microteaching Prof. Dr. M. Zafar Iqbal Dr. M. Javed Iqbal Mr. Zahid Majeed Learning Innovation Division Higher Education Commission, Islamabad.

2 Table of Contents A.Introduction...1 B.Aims...2 C.Module Objectives...2 Session I: Introduction to Teaching Perspectives in Higher Education Session Learning Outcomes Key Concepts and Content Key Concept 1: The idea of teaching perspectives Key Concept 2: The paradigm shift from teaching to learning in higher education..6 3.Teaching Approaches Learning Activities Summary & Transition Assessment...13 Session II: Learning and Learning Process Session Learning Outcomes Key Concepts and Content Key Concept 1: Cognitive Learning Key Concept 2: Characteristics of Learning Key Concept 3: Factors that Affect Learning Key Concept 4: Learning Process...17

3 3.Teaching Approaches Learning Activities Summary and Transition Assessment...22 Session-III: Students as Learner Session Learning Outcomes Key Concepts and Content Key Concept 1: Characteristics of learners Key Concept 2: Adult learning theory Key Concept 3: How University/College Students Learn? Teaching Approaches Learning Activities Activity 1: Make a presentation of the content above Activity 2: Identification of learning style of individual students Activity 3: Video clip links Summary& Transition Assessment...34 Session IV-V: Designing and Implementing Effective Learning Experiences Session Learning Outcomes Key Concepts and Content Key Concept 1: Characteristics of effective teaching Key Concept 2: Syllabus/Course Planning Key Concept 3: Developing lesson plans...42

4 2.4Key Concept 4: Planning a session may include Title Objectives Instructional Method Time Material Motivational set Body of the lesson Debrief Learning Activities Learning Activity Activity Summary and Transition Assessment...47 Session VI-VII: Selecting instructional strategies and techniques Session Learning Outcomes Key Concepts and Content Key Concept 1: Interactive Teaching Key Concept 2: Active lecture Key Concept 3: Collaborative learning Key Concept 4: Experience Sharing Key Concept 5: Inquiry -based Teaching Key Concept 6: Problem Based Learning...55

5 2.7Key Concept 7: Team Teaching Key Concept 8: Assessing Teaching and Learning Formative versus summative assessments Teaching Approaches Learning Activities Summary & Transition...60 D.Materials...61 D.1Learning Materials of Session I: Kolb Learning Style Inventory...61 E.References & Bibliography...66

6 A. Introduction Many university/college teachers today want to move past passive learning to active learning, to find better ways of engaging students in the learning process. But many teachers feel a need for help in imagining what to do, in or out of class that will constitute a meaningful set learning experience. The basic purpose of teaching is to enable learning. The most effective teaching is that which results in the most effective learning. Indeed, in a knowledge-driven society where information has an increasingly short shelf life, it is important for university teachers to focus on the long-term goal of preparing our students for life, equipping them with more than a finite and rapidly obsolescent body of knowledge, and developing their faculties for understanding, applying and creating knowledge, as well as their ability to constantly refresh and upgrade their knowledge. But effective university teachers cannot be defined in any absolute way. University teaching involves diverse modes of instruction, including: lectures, seminars, labs, and mentoring (e.g., thesis supervision). Disciplines, courses, and instructors also vary widely in their emphasis on such varied educational objectives as learning new knowledge, stimulating student interest, developing cognitive skills, and leading students to question established tenets. So it is difficult to make sweeping generalizations about what constitutes effective teaching. Here we will provide an overview of some of the research and theory on teaching in higher education. In this module, we will discuss key perspectives that shape and influence how to think more carefully and critically within your own discipline, and the paradigm shift in university teaching from teacher centered to learner centered. These perspectives help illuminate what one thinks about teaching, what one does as a teacher, and how one interacts with students and fosters their learning. We will also consider learners and the learning process, and stress the characteristics of effective teaching, course and lesson planning; teaching strategies to foster active learning, and 1

7 assessment in teaching and learning. Microteaching as a practice tool has been utilized for inculcating all these skills. Conceptual approach to teaching in higher education in terms of broad educational philosophies, the five perspectives on teaching discussed by Pratt (1997), the shift to a learning paradigm (Barr & Tagg, 2002), and the idea of andragogy as a challenge to traditional conceptions of pedagogy (Knowles, 1970; Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007) are included in this module. B. Aims The aim of this module is to improve the learning process of the university teachers through deeper understanding of teaching, learning and assessment. The module will focus on the themes; i) Teaching in higher perspectives, ii) Learning and learning process, iii) Student as learner, iv) Designing and Implementing Effective Learning Experiences, v) Selecting instructional strategies and techniques; and vi) Microteaching. C. Module Objectives After training participants will be able to: Differentiate between andragogy and pedagogy. Differentiate between teacher centered and student centered teaching. Understand the learning process and how this understanding effects changes in their teaching approaches Apply the principles of learning and learning styles in their classroom teaching. Demonstrate knowledge of several instructional strategies that foster active and engaged learning. Use collaborative learning strategies to help students learn from one another. 2

8 Make effective use of appropriate assessment procedures to provide feedback on one s teaching. 3

9 Session I: Introduction to Teaching Perspectives in Higher Education 1. Session Learning Outcomes Participants will be able to: Differentiate between andragogy and pedagogy. Differentiate between teacher centered and student centered teaching. Shift from teacher centered to learner centered teaching. 2. Key Concepts and Content Virtually all contemporary approaches to teaching and learning in higher education reflect one or more distinct educational philosophies. While time and space do not permit us to go in depth with a detailed discussion and elaboration of these philosophies, it is helpful to first articulate some of the key questions these philosophies address and to briefly summarize how they differ from each other with respect to these philosophies. Perhaps the most succinct summary of the key educational philosophies is that of Gary Fenstermacher and Joans Soltis (2004) in their book, Approaches to Teaching. In this text, they articulate three major schools of thought that permeate virtually all levels of teaching and all contexts, including that of the university. These are the executive approach, the facilitator approach, (humanist) and the liberationist approach (liberal). Recently, a fourth approach has emerged, that of the constructivist, to compliment the three approaches defined by Fenstermacher and Soltis. Each of these approaches provides different responses to: The overall aims or purposes of education; The psychology of human nature; The nature of knowledge and how one comes to know; 4

10 The role of the teacher in helping students learns. In the Executive Approach the overall aim is to transmit a body of knowledge or skill from the teacher to the learner. The prior knowledge and experience of the learner is not emphasized and learning consists of acquiring and demonstrating the requisite knowledge and skills. The teacher is the authority and generally selects strategies, such as lecturing and demonstrating, that are most effective in transmitting this body of knowledge. With the Humanist Approach, education is like caring for a garden and the aim of teaching is to foster the innate talent, gifts, and abilities of each student. Prior knowledge and experience are important in this approach and the teacher selects methods that actively engage the learner in using these prior experiences and innate gifts. Teachers are like gardeners, caring for the students intellect, emotions, spiritual, and physical wellbeing. The Liberal Approach stresses the importance of developing the educated person, thus empowering or liberating the person from internal and external coercive forces. Emphasis is placed on the power of liberal or general studies to foster growth and development of the mind. The knowledge to be attained is bound up within the structures of the disciplines, and teachers seek to help students learn to think like scholars within the various disciplines they are studying, such as thinking like a physicist, a mathematician, or a writer. In this approach, the mind is like a muscle. Engaging students in regular and challenging exercises strengthens their various faculties, such as critical thinking, reflection, and creativity. Finally, the Constructivist Approach blends aspects of both humanism and liberalism. The aim of this approach is to help students use the subject matter to reflect on and reconstruct the meaning of their prior knowledge and experience. Emphasis in this approach is on the construction of meaning, rather than merely the acquisition of information or skill. Teachers select strategies, such as reflective activities, small group work, and case-based or problem-based learning that allow the students to use their prior knowledge and experiences within the context of the subject being studied. 5

11 2.1 Key Concept 1: The idea of teaching perspectives These philosophies also undergird another popular approach to conceptualizing teaching and learning in higher education, that of the teaching perspectives of Dan Pratt (1998). Pratt s perspectives are derived from his research on teaching in higher and adult education in five different countries, including Asian countries. From this research he developed what he refers to as the General Model of Teaching. This model suggests that all forms of teaching manifest particular commitments that reflect the teachers beliefs, intentions, and actions around the role of the teacher and the learner, the content, ideals guiding the teaching practice, and the overall context in which this teaching is occurring. These commitments, Pratt, argues, suggest five different configurations and relationships of these five components. These configurations he called perspectives : transmission, developmental, nurturing, apprenticeship, and social reform. While these perspectives overlap and reflect the dominant philosophical approaches discussed by Fenstermacher and Soltis, Pratt stresses that his perspectives are grounded in empirical studies of what teachers actually believe, intend, and do within classrooms of higher and adult education. They reflect quite different commitments of the teacher to the learner, the content, and the context, and stress differing relationships among the teacher, the learner, and the content. 2.2 Key Concept 2: The paradigm shift from teaching to learning in higher education Another, less philosophical way to conceptualize teaching and learning in higher education is that of the teaching paradigm and the learning paradigm (Barr & Tagg, 1995; Tagg, 2003). A paradigm is essentially a fundamental way of viewing and making sense of particular aspects of our world. It is often made up of beliefs, assumptions, and values about the nature of things that we take for granted and do not question or examine. For this reason, paradigms often act as a kind of lens through which we see the world. As a lens it includes some things and excludes others. 6

12 Approaches to teaching and learning in higher education often reflect paradigmatic beliefs, assumptions, and values. For many years, teaching in higher education has been dominated by teacher-centered approaches. In teacher centered instruction, knowledge is transmitted from teacher to the learner (Bank and Conning Ham, 1998). In teacher centered instruction, development of instruction and control of learning is with instruction. A key assumption of this model is that the teacher needs to do things to and for the learner. Here knowledge is static and outside the individual. Learners passively receive information. Teacher centered instruction is characterized by more talk, usually group instruction, reliance on text books, and classroom management by seating students in rows facing a blackboard. All students perform the same task at the same time, as directed by the teacher. The teacher decides what is required by the students. Aspects of Fenstermacher s executive approach to teaching and Pratt s transmission perspective reflect important elements of a teacher-centered perspective. But recent research on how people learn has reinforced the need to re-examine this age-old tradition, and to move towards a more learner-centered paradigm. Continual advances in knowledge, about how the brain functions, and how we think and learn, call into question many of the long-held assumptions about teacher-centered approaches. We now know, for example, that individuals are more likely to retain knowledge when they learn through active problem solving. We also know that learning is often a social process, enriched by the insights of others. We know, too, that learning involves making connections and that those connections depend on the prior knowledge and experiences the individual brings to the classroom. In learner-centered approach the teacher takes into account the learners prior knowledge and experiences of individual learners and helps the learners understand the new information within the context of this prior knowledge (Brandford et al., 2000). Learner-centered education takes place when the student is at the center of the learning process. The students prior knowledge and experience with and within our subject are critical to fostering the learner s active engagement with the subject. The teacher is there to assist learners, to help them develop skills which ultimately enable them to learn throughout 7

13 their lives. Basic responsibility of learning rests with the learner, and the instructor helps facilitate the learning process at both the individual and group levels. The teacher continuously assesses the progress of the student in terms of learning outcomes. This approach is basically individualistic, flexible, competency based, varied in methodology and not always constrained by time and place. One can imagine how any of Fenstermacher s approaches to teaching or Pratt s teaching perspectives might reflect a more learner-centered paradigm. But some of these more easily lend themselves to a learner-centered perspective, such as Fenstermacher s humanist approach or Pratt s nurturing and developmental perspectives. A summary of the characteristics and differences of these two approaches to teaching in higher education is provided in the table that follows. Table 1. Teacher-centered vs. learner centered approaches. Teacher-Centered Focus is on instructor Focus is on language forms and structures (what the instructor knows about the language) Instructor talks; students listen Students work alone Instructor monitors every student utterance and makes corrections, as appropriate. Instructor answers students questions about language Instructor chooses topics Learner-Centered Focus is on both students and instructor Focus is on language use in typical situations (how students will use the language) Instructor models; students interact with instructor and one another Students work in pairs, in groups, or alone depending on the purpose of the activity Students talk without constant instructor monitoring; instructor provides feedback/correction when questions arise Students answer each other s questions, using instructor as an information resource Students have some choice of topics 8

14 Instructor evaluates student learning Classroom is quiet Students evaluate their own learning; instructor also evaluates Classroom is often noisy and busy Andragogy as an alternative vision to traditional conceptions of pedagogy Pedagogy literally means the art and science of educating children and often is used as a synonym for teaching. More accurately, pedagogy embodies teacher-focused education. In the pedagogic model, teachers assume responsibility for making decisions about what will be learned, how it will be learned, and when it will be learned. Teachers direct learning. Andragogy, initially defined as "the art and science of helping adults learn," currently defines an alternative to pedagogy and refers to learner-focused education for people of all ages. In other words andragogical approach is all about putting the learner in the driver s seat. Table 2. Pedagogy Vs. Andragogy The learner The learner's experience Readiness to learn Pedagogy Dependent. Teacher directs what, when, how a subject is learned and tests that it has been learned Of little worth. Hence teaching methods are didactic People learn what society expects them to. So that the curriculum is standardized. Andragogy Moves towards independence. Self-direction. Teacher encourages and nurtures this movement A rich resource for learning. Hence teaching methods include discussion, problem - solving etc. People learn what they need to know, so that learning programmes organized around life application. 9

15 Orientation to learning Acquisition of subject matter. Curriculum organized by subjects. Learning experiences should be based around experiences, since people are performance centered in their learning Many scholars prefer to use the term pedagogy, as we do here, even when referring to approaches to teaching that are more learner-centered and exhibit all the characteristics of the andragogical approach illustrated in the preceding table. The important point here is the key characteristics that are associated with a learning environment that is learner-centered and respects the students as adult or emerging adult learners. Teaching strategies are always in the service of overarching goals and values held by the teacher. They do not, in and of themselves, represent a particular, philosophical approach to teaching. Goals and values are illustrated in the above discussions. For example, one could use the lecture method but still be a teacher informed by a humanist approach, illustrating nurturing and developmental perspectives, and exhibiting an andragogical style. One could use cooperative learning strategies and still be driven by a desire to control mastery of the content (executive approach) by using a transmission perspective in a very teacher-centered manner. Effective teachers use an array of teaching strategies because there is no single, universal approach that suits all situations. Different strategies used in different combinations with different groupings of students will improve learning outcomes. Some strategies are better suited to teaching certain skills and fields of knowledge than are others. Some strategies are better suited to certain student backgrounds, learning styles and abilities. We will discuss teachings strategies in detail later on. Effective pedagogy incorporates an array of teaching strategies that support intellectual engagement, connectedness to the wider world, supportive classroom environments, and recognition of difference. This form of pedagogy should be implemented across all key learning and subject areas. Effective pedagogical practice promotes the well -being of students, teachers and the school community. It improves students' and teachers' confidence and contributes to 10

16 their sense of purpose for being at university; it builds community confidence in the quality of learning and teaching in the university. One measure of the teacher's willingness to give of himself or herself is his or her accessibility to students, his or her willingness to spend time with them. One difficulty here is the narrow conception that often prevails about what it means to teach. To teach means more than to lecture or explain before a group of students. The best teachers influence their students more in their personal, individual contacts with them than in strict classroom situations. If teaching and learning are complementary processes, if the teacher is to teach by learning and if his or her teaching is to be directed toward an individual, he or she must know that individual. Our emphasis in teaching should be on engaging our students actively in the learning process. This requires us to know our students, and the prior knowledge and experience they bring to their learning experiences. An emphasis on traditional lectures and recitations is not an effective way to actively engage students. We know that no one can educate another person, that all of us must educate ourselves. The teacher's role is that of a helper in this process. The question is: How can we best help? 3. Teaching Approaches Ice Breaking & Brain Storming Lecture & Discussion Inquiry Approach Activity and Group Work 4. Learning Activities 4.1 Activity 1: Ice-breaking Activity Begin with an ice breaking activity. Ask participants to share one of their best learning experiences and why they enjoyed/valued it. 11

17 4.2 Activity 2: Present the Above Topics Make a presentation on the topics above. 4.3 Activity 2: Activating prior Knowledge The TPI A. Step1: Take the Teaching Perspective Inventory (TPI) Print out the results of the TPI for your own teaching, and read about what how this perspective reflects particular relationships between the teacher, the learner, the content, and the ideals held for one s teaching. B. Step2: The Module Leader (ML) will form the participants into groups that are aligned with their respective teaching perspectives. C. Step 3: Each group will be asked to brainstorm the ways in which their teaching exhibits the characteristic of their perspective. D. Step 4: Groups may be asked to report out to the larger group. The rest of the larger group will listen to see in what ways the examples provided are consistent with their understanding of the various teaching perspectives. E. Step 5: The ML will lead the larger group in a discussion of the key strengths and weaknesses of the teaching perspectives framework as a way to reflect on one s teaching. 4.4 Activity 4: View and Discuss Video Clips View and discuss the video clips. Ask participants a question such as, What are the strongest ideas from each clip that you would want to use in your teaching and why? Student Centered Teaching 12

18 Teacher -centered classroom Interactive Teaching Teaching Perspectives 5. Summary & Transition In summary, we have looked at several ways in which teaching and learning in higher education have been conceptualized. These include broad philosophical approaches or schools of thought derived over centuries of scholarship; Pratt s five teaching perspectives, and the shift to a more learning-centered paradigm reflected in the work of Barr and Tagg and the concept of andragogy. We will revisit aspects of teaching and learning in more detail in the following sections. In the next section of this module, we take closer look at the nature of our learners and the learning process. 6. Assessment The ML will assess learning of the participants using following indicators: 1. How much participants are reflecting during the discussion and activity? 2. Participants can differentiate between (a) teacher-centered and learner centered learning (b) teaching perspectives in higher and secondary education. 13

19 Session II: Learning and Learning Process 1. Session Learning Outcomes To enable participants: To conceptualize learning and theories of learning and its impact on effective classroom teaching. To assess their teaching in the light of characteristics associated with useful learning. To understand the learning process and how this understanding effects changes in their teaching approaches 2. Key Concepts and Content What is learning? To learn is to acquire knowledge or skill. Learning also may involve a change in attitude or behavior. Students learn to identify objects at an early age; teenagers may learn to improve study habits; and adults can learn to solve complex problems. Pilots and aviation maintenance technicians (AMTs) need to acquire the higher levels of knowledge and skill, including the ability to exercise judgment and solve problems. The challenge for a university teacher is to understand how people learn, and more importantly, to be able to apply that knowledge to the learning environment. 2.1 Key Concept 1: Cognitive Learning Cognitive learning is about enabling people to learn by using their reason, intuition and perception. This technique is often used to change peoples behavior. But people s behavior is influenced by many factors such as culture, upbringing, education and motivation. Therefore, cognitive learning involves understanding how these factors influence behavior and then using this information to develop learning programs. 14

20 So it is far more subtle than just telling students what you want them to do differently. It involves presenting your task in such a way that it allows students to work out the answer themselves. This can be achieved in a number of ways: Response consequences should you reward demonstration of the right behavior or punish demonstration of the wrong behavior? Which approach will achieve the required outcomes? In reality there needs to be a combination of both, as people will be motivated by different things. Observation observation is a very powerful learning tool as it enables us to see whether performing an action is desirable or not without making the mistake ourselves. Also employees will be more likely to demonstrate the right behaviors if they see managers and senior managers doing so. Symbolism allows us to create mental pictures and act out scenarios so that we can think through the consequences without actually performing it. Therefore cognitive awareness involves using cognitive learning techniques which are then used to make informed decisions about how to deal with new or similar situations. This may sound complicated but in reality it is how we learn. 2.2 Key Concept 2: Characteristics of Learning A university/college teacher needs a good understanding of the general characteristics of learning in order to apply them in a learning situation. lf learning is a change in behavior as a result of experience, then a teacher must include a careful and systematic creation of those experiences that promote learning. This process can be quite complex because, among other things, a student s background strongly influences the way that he/she learns. To be effective, the learning situation also should be purposeful, based on experience, multifaceted, and involve an active process Readiness 15

21 Individuals learn best when they are ready to learn, and they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. Getting students ready to learn is usually the teacher's responsibility. If students have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a definite reason for learning something, they make more progress than if they lack motivation Exercise The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is the basis of drill and practice. The human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts or practices after a single exposure Affect The principle of affect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It states that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. Experiences that produce feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion, or futility are unpleasant for the student Primacy Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. For the university teacher, this means that what is taught must be begin with a strong start. For the student, it means that learning must be engaged immediately. The first experience should be positive, functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to follow Intensity A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. A student is likely to gain greater understanding of slow flight and stalls by performing them rather than merely reading about them. The principle of intensity implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute Recency 16

22 The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember. It is easy, for example, for a student to recall a torque value used a few minutes earlier, but it is usually impossible to remember an unfamiliar one used a week earlier. 2.3 Key Concept 3: Factors that Affect Learning There are several factors that affect an individual's ability to perceive. Some are internal to each person and some are external. Physical organism Basic need Goals and values Self-concept Time and opportunity Element of threat 2.4 Key Concept 4: Learning Process The ability to learn is one of the most outstanding human characteristics. Learning occurs continuously throughout a student's lifetime. To define learning, it is necessary to analyze what happens to the student. For example, a student's way of perceiving, thinking, feeling, and doing may change as a result of a learning experience. Thus, learning can be defined as a change in behavior as a result of experience. This can be physical and overt, or it may involve complex intellectual or attitudinal changes which affect behavior in more subtle ways. In spite of numerous theories and contrasting views, psychologists generally agree on many common characteristics of learning. 17

23 Figure 1. Learning. Figure 1 illustrates how the idea of learning affects virtually all aspects of the instructional process, from intended outcomes to design to learning experiences. Many university/college teachers today want to move past passive learning to active learning, to find better ways of engaging students in the learning process. But many teachers 18

24 feel a need for help in imagining what to do, in or out of class, which would constitute a meaningful set of active learning techniques. The model below offers a way of conceptualizing the learning process in a way that may assist teachers in identifying meaningful forms of active learning. Figure 2. Illustration of learning activities. This diagram suggests that all learning activities involve some kind of experience or dialogue. The two main kinds of dialogue are "Dialogue with Self" and "Dialogue with Others." The two main kinds of experience are "Observing" and "Doing." Dialogue with Self - This is what happens when a university student thinks reflectively about a topic, i.e., they ask themselves what they think or should think? What they feel about the topic, etc? This is "thinking about my own thinking," but it addresses a broader array of questions than just cognitive concerns. Dialogue with Others - This can and does come in many forms. In traditional teaching, when students read a book or listen to a lecture, they are "listening to" another person (teacher, book author). This can perhaps be viewed as "partial dialogue" but it is limited because there is no back-and-forth exchange. A much more dynamic and active form of 19

25 dialogue occurs when a teacher creates an intense small group discussion on a topic. Sometimes teachers can also find creative ways to involve students in dialogue situations with people other than students (e.g., practitioners, experts), either in class or outside of class. Whoever the dialogue is with, it might be done live, in writing, or by . Observing - This occurs whenever a learner watches or listens to someone else "Doing" something that is related to what they are learning about. This might be such things as observing one's teacher do something Doing - This refers to any learning activity where the learner actually does something: design a reservoir dam (engineering), conduct a school choir (music education), design and/or conduct an experiment (natural and social sciences), critique an argument or piece of writing (the humanities), investigate local historical resources(history), make an oral presentation (communication), etc. 3. Teaching Approaches Reflection Facilitated Group Discussion Interactive Lecture 4. Learning Activities 4.1 Activity 1: Individual reflection Ask participants to complete a critical incident of learning experiences. They should reflect on a recent learning experience they have had that was particularly memorable for them. Ask them to address the following questions: What was the purpose of the learning experience? 20

26 What happened? Briefly describe the learning experience? Who was involved? What made the learning experience particularly memorable for you? 4.2 Activity 2: Small group work Form groups of three to four participants and ask each participant to briefly share their story. As group members listen, they should watch for similarities in the stories. 4.3 Activity 3: Large group Ask a person from each group to briefly share the common themes or similarities that were observed across the stories. Discuss with the whole group what observations they might be about the characteristics of learning experiences. 4.4 Activity 4: Lecture with PowerPoint presentation Make a presentation on the above points. 4.5 Activity 5: Lead large group discussion in reflecting on critical incidents and how the stories Reflect the information shared in the presentation. 5. Summary and Transition In this session, we have reviewed key aspects of the learning process. The key ideas we covered included processes involved in cognitive learning, important characteristics of the learning process, factors that often affect the learning process, and a couple different ways to conceptualize learning within the instructional environment, including Kolb s theory of experiential learning. 21

27 6. Assessment Ask participants which concepts from the lecture presentation were most useful to deepen their understanding and capacity to see critical incidences. 22

28 Session-III: Students as Learner 1. Session Learning Outcomes The participants will be able to: Describe ideal student learners in the light of learning theory and characteristics associated with a good learner. Apply the principles of learning and learning styles in their classroom teaching. 2. Key Concepts and Content Knowledge of our students as learners and the learning process can also contribute to our effectiveness as teachers in higher education. In this section we will discuss the characteristics of students that have potential relevance to learning, and what adult learning theory has to say about our students as learners and how they learn. 2.1 Key Concept 1: Characteristics of learners Now that we have considered different perspectives on what learning is and how that impacts the approach university teachers take in the classroom, the challenge is to deepen our understanding of the different ways students learn. Remarkably, people can learn from the moment of birth. Learning is a lifelong process. We constantly make sense of our experiences and consistently search for meaning. In essence, we continue to learn. We can learn from everything the mind perceives (at any age). Our brains build and strengthen neural pathways no matter where we are, no matter what the subject or the context. To learn is to acquire knowledge or skill. Learning also may involve a change in attitude or behavior. Students learn to identify objects at an early age; teenagers may learn to improve study habits; and adults can learn to solve complex problems. Pilots and aviation maintenance 23

29 technicians (AMTs) need to acquire the higher levels of knowledge and skill, including the ability to exercise judgment and solve problems. The challenge for the university s teacher is to understand how people learn, and more importantly, to be able to apply that knowledge to the learning environment Part of being an effective university teacher involves understanding who students are and how they learn best. There are several factors that affect an individual's ability to perceive and, thus, to learn. Some factors are internal to each person and some are external. Internal factors include those such as visual and auditory acuity, and other physical conditions, such as physical disabilities, that might influence a student s access to or participation in courses. Other internal factors include perceived goals for and values of learning, and one s self-concept or sense of self as a learner, may also shape a student s learning process. Tagg (2003) refers to these beliefs and assumptions about one s self as a learner as a student s self theory (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). For example, you may have some students who exhibit strong development in formal thinking, one of the adult stages of cognitive development, whereas others may have only rudimentary development in this area. Some students may have progressed substantially in their psychosocial and emotional development but others may be less emotionally mature. Learning may also be influenced by factors, such as, financial constraints, time limitations, or perceived threats to physical or psychological safety. Institutional and situational conditions often contribute a host of barriers or deterrents to one s learning (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Students may differ with respect to their comfort with group or individualized approaches, structured or unstructured tasks and learning experiences. They also often differ with respect to cognitive characteristics or how they perceive and take in information within the learning experience, such as auditory, visual, or tactile dimensions of learning. These differences in approaches to learning illustrate what is referred to as learning styles. Learning styles are ways of learning. A preferred learning style is the way in which a 24

30 student learns best, which reflects the relative strengths or weaknesses of that student s underling cognitive (learning) skills. There are many different models of learning styles, and different scholars use different learning style categories. For example, the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) is a popular approach to helping individuals identify their preferences for perceiving and organizing information within their environment. Based on Kolb s theory of experiential learning (1984), this inventory is based on four styles of learning: converger, assimilitator, diverger, and accommodator (See additional Kolb LSI information in Section D. Materials). It represents another approach to learning styles, and blends aspects of several different theories of emotion and learning. In response to what he perceived to be a bias towards verbal and logical interpretations of intelligence, Howard Gardner (1993) developed an inventory to measure various forms of intelligence within human beings. His theory is a way of thinking about the spectrum of intelligences and the relative strength of different intelligences students exhibits (rather than limiting it to one kind of intelligence alone) (Gardner, 1993). Multiple Intelligence (MI) theory maintains that there are at least seven forms of intelligence: interpersonal, intra-personal, body/kinesthetic, visual/spatial, logical/mathematical, verbal/linguistic, and musical/rhythmic. Gardner points out that most curricular and pedagogical approaches used in higher education today emphasize only two of these forms of intelligence: logical/mathematical and verbal/linguistic. In addition to these approaches to learning styles, others have described what is referred to as cognitive style. This concept usually describes a personality dimension which influences attitudes, values, and social interaction. There may be a dozen or more cognitive learning style theories which psychologists have developed models for. In this tutorial, we will focus on the four described above. One of the more well -known approaches to cognitive style is Witkin s notion of dependence and field independence. While the specific definitions and descriptions of these two styles are somewhat complex, field dependence can be described as a process of cognition and learning which is embedded within the context. A field dependent person is one who has difficulty perceiving and apprehending meaning apart from the 25

31 particular context s in which it is expressed. They are, by and large, social learners who work well with others, and perhaps even need others to learn effectively. Field independent learners are able to focus specifically on particulars within a broader context or field and by, contained and large, ignore the information within other aspects of the field. They prefer to work alone and learn well in that manner. Neither of the styles is necessarily better than the other and both are often needed in particular learning or work tasks. For purposes of this workshop and to further illustrate the idea of learning styles, we will focus on the following simplified list of three learning styles: Auditory, Visual, and Tactile. A student with auditory learning style learns best when information is delivered in auditory formats such as lectures, discussions, oral readings, audio recordings, or podcasts. Auditory learners do well in classroom settings where professor lectures and student discussions are the norm. These students also do well with taped courses and group study situations. A student with a visual learning style learns best when information is presented in visual formats such as books, articles, web pages, images, videos, or diagrams. Visual learners do well with class handouts, power point presentations, movies, and chalkboards. These students take detailed notes, highlight their texts, and use flow charts for study aids. A student with tactile learning style learns best when information is conveyed in hands on settings such as trade positions, labs, workshops, or participatory classes. Tactile learners respond well to touching and creating things in areas such as art and science. These students want to hold and manipulate the subject matter, rather than merely viewing an image of it. Students cultural background and context that are primarily collectivist or primarily individualistic in nature, will also influence their ability or willingness to participate in learning experiences. Finally, gender may influence a student s willingness to engage in relational or interactive forms of learning, or their preference for certain ways of making decisions. Learning can be defined formally as the act, process, or experience of gaining knowledge or skills. In contrast, memory can define the capacity of storing, retrieving, and acting on that 26

32 knowledge. Learning strengthens the brain by building new pathways and increasing connections that we can rely on when we want to learn more. Definitions that are more complex add words such as comprehension and mastery through experience or study. Our discussion here assumes learning, from the most fundamental to complex, to be (1) any increase in knowledge, (2) memorizing information, (3) acquiring knowledge for practical use, (4) abstracting meaning from what we do, and (5) a process that allows us to understand (Robert, 1991). Learning helps us move from novices to experts and allow us to gain new knowledge and abilities. The idea of andragogy also includes helping learners become self actualized and self -directed, taking into consideration both the cognitive and affective dimensions of learning. 2.2 Key Concept 2: Adult learning theory Another way to think about the nature of our students is through the lens of adult learning theory (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Compared to children and teens, adults have special needs and requirements as learners. Adult learning is a relatively new area of study. The field of adult learning was pioneered by Malcom Knowles (1970). He identified the following characteristics or Assumptions that underlie andragogy - the process of adult learning: 1. Has an independent self -concept and who can direct his or her own learning. 2. Has accumulated a reservoir of life experiences that is a rich resource for learning. 3. Has learning needs closely related to changing social roles. 4. Is problem-centered and interested in immediate application of knowledge 5. Is motivated to learn by internal rather than external factors (Merriam, 2001, p.5) 27

33 Speck (1996) noted that the following important points of adult learning theory/philosophy should be considered when professional development activities are designed for educators: 1. Adults will commit to learning when the goals and objectives are considered realistic and important to them. 2. Adults want to be the origin of their own learning and will resist learning activities they believe are an attack on their competence. 3. Adult learners need to see that the professional development learning and their day -to-day activities are related and relevant. 4. Adult learners need direct, concrete experiences in which they apply the learning in real work. 5. Adult learning has ego involved. 6. Adults need to receive feedback. 7. Adults need to participate in small -group activities 8. Adult learners come to learning with a wide range of previous experiences, knowledge, self-direction, interests, and competencies. As do all learners, adult need to be shown respect. University teachers must acknowledge the wealth of experiences that their students bring to the lecture room. These students should be treated as equal in experience and knowledge and allowed to voice their opinions freely in classrooms. 2.3 Key Concept 3: How University/College Students Learn? To define learning, it is necessary to analyze what happens to the student. For example, a student's way of perceiving, thinking, feeling, and doing may change as a result of a learning experience. Thus, learning can be defined as a change in behavior as a result of experience. This 28

34 can be physical and overt, or it may involve complex intellectual or attitudinal changes which affect behavior in more subtle ways. Learning in adulthood is a complex process and not easily understood by any one theory or model. Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007) identify five major strands or orientations to learning that are present, in various forms, in the literature on learning. They are behaviorist, humanist, cognitivist, social cognitivist, and constructivist. These orientations differ with respect to their: 1. Overall views of the learning process; 2. Where they locate the locus of learning; 3. What they hold to be the purpose of learning; 4. The instructor s role in the l earning process; and 5. Manifestations of this orientation in adult learning. The cognitive, information-processing model has dominated research and theory on how people learn. With recent research on how people learn (Bransford, et al, 2000), other perspectives have gained increasing currency within much of the educational field, especially in higher and adult education. These orientations stress the process of learning as interaction with and observation of others and the broader environment within a social context, the learning of new roles and behaviors, the construction of meaning from experience and the construction of knowledge through individual and social processes. The role of the teacher is to model and guide new roles and behaviors for the students, and to facilitate and negotiate meaning -making among the learners (Merriam, et. al., 2007). The social cognitivist and constructivist approaches are exemplified in models of learning that emphasize the role of experience in learning. The importance of experience in learning dates back to the writings of John Dewey (1938) and probably even to late 19th century scholars. 29

35 Dewey argued that all education that is genuine or authentic is mediated through experience. Two principles are important in order to understand the role of experience in learning. First, the principle of continuity of experience suggests that every experience is constituted by something that has gone before and modifies to some extent that which comes after. The second principle says that all experiences involve an interaction or transaction between the individual and his or her environment at the time. These two principles are always interconnected and work together to constitute experiential learning (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). While there are several models of experience-based learning (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007), perhaps the most well known is the experiential learning theory of David Kolb (1984). Kolb argued that learning from and through experience involved 1) a willingness to engage in new experience; 2) observation and reflection at these experiences; 3) analyzing these observations and reflections to generate integrative ideas and concepts from these experiences; and 4) deciding on how to implement these new ideas in one s practice or everyday experiences. The ability to learn is one of the most outstanding human characteristics. Learning occurs continuously throughout a student's lifetime. In spite of numerous theories and contrasting views, psychologists generally agree on many common characteristics of learning. So here are some key characteristics of adult learners that may help you facilitate more effective learning experiences for your students. Adults are people with years of experience and a wealth of information. Focus on the strengths learners bring to the classroom, not just gaps in their knowledge. Adults have established values beliefs and opinions. Demonstrate respect for differing beliefs, religions, value systems and lifestyles. Let your learners know that they are entitled to their values, beliefs and opinions, but that everyone in the room may not share their beliefs. Allow debate and challenge of ideas. 30

36 Adults are people whose style and pace of learning has probably changed. Use a variety of teaching strategies such as small group problem solving and discussion. Use auditory, visual, tactile and participatory teaching methods. Reaction time and speed of learning may be slow, but the ability to learn is not impaired by age. Most adults prefer teaching methods other than lecture. Adults relate new knowledge and information to previously learned information and experiences. Assess the specific learning needs of your audience before your class or at the beginning of the class. Present single concepts and focus on application of concepts to relevant practical situations. Adults are people with bodies influenced by gravity. Plan frequent breaks, even if they are 2-minute "stretch" breaks. During a lecture, a short break every minutes is sufficient. In more interactive teaching situations, breaks can be spaced minutes apart. Adults have pride. Support the students as individuals. Self-esteem and ego are at risk in a classroom environment that is not perceived as safe or supportive. People will not ask questions or participate in learning if they are afraid of being put down or ridiculed. Allow people to admit confusion, ignorance, fears, biases and different opinions. Acknowledge or thank students for their responses and questions. Treat all questions and comments with respect. Adults have a deep need to be self-directing. Engage the students in a process of mutual inquiry. Avoid merely transmitting knowledge or expecting total agreement. Don't "spoon -feed" the participants. Individual differences among people increase with age. Take into account differences in style, time, types and pace of learning. Use auditory, visual, tactile and participatory teaching methods. Adults tend to have a problem-centered orientation to learning. Emphasize how learning can be applied in a practical setting. Use case studies, problem solving groups, 31

37 and participatory activities to enhance learning. Adults generally want to immediately apply new information or skills to current problems or situations. As a teacher in higher education, you will want to foster the use of critical reflection among your students. Learning represents the result of a dialogical relationship among the self of the student, the subject matter, and the context. Students will always, either implicitly or explicitly, bring their experiences and prior knowledge to bear on the study of the content. How they do this and the ways in which it will shape the meaning they construct of what they are studying will depend on the contexts, and the particular learning environments created for them. 3. Teaching Approaches Observations Lecture & Discussion Activity Approach Quizcussion (Quiz and discussion) Experiential Approach 4. Learning Activities 4.1 Activity 1: Make a presentation of the content above 4.2 Activity 2: Identification of learning style of individual students. Using the three types of learning styles discussed in the session, identify your students with whom a particular learning style may be associated (Tick the relevant box for the individual student). 32

38 Table 3. S # Student Name Auditory Visual Tactile Activity 3: Video clip links View these two video clips then discuss are learning styles valid or a myth? Learning Styles Learning Styles Don't Exist 5. Summary& Transition Teaching and learning can occur effectively, if teacher has sound knowledge of characteristics and how learning process takes place. Moreover individual learning styles i.e. auditory, visual, and tactile learning styles contribute to developing appropriate teachinglearning environment in the classroom. Students at universities and colleges are adult and have certain characteristics. These help the teacher to understand how students learn. Deeper understanding of all these contributes towards designing & implementation of effective learning experiences by the university/college teacher. 33

39 6. Assessment 1. The ML/facilitator will test the conceptualization of learning by testing one or two participants through questions. 2. The participants may give examples of specific learning styles of their students. 3. The participants may give examples of how to apply learning theory in their daily classroom teaching. 34

40 Session IV-V: Designing and Implementing Effective Learning Experiences 1. Session Learning Outcomes The participants will be able to: Select effective teaching strategies. Develop syllabus/course according to the standard template/format. Develop daily session/lesson plan for the subject teaching. 2. Key Concepts and Content The teacher is responsible for creating environments that effectively create opportunities for student learning. A significant dimension of this task is the teaching role the teacher plays and the specific teaching strategies that are selected to address the learning objectives. The teacher creates learning opportunities. The role of the teacher might be seen as a facilitator. The teacher as facilitator is consistent with the shift to learner -centered instruction and the principles of helping students learn that we derived from the idea of andragogy and adult learning theory. The facilitator plans for learning environments and teaching strategies that build on the prior knowledge and experience of his or her learners, and that address the unique physical, social, emotional, and mental characteristics of the learners. The teacher as facilitator also uses evaluation processes that help assess the effectiveness of both teaching and learning. We must see ourselves as facilitators of learning who possess knowledge, not as the keepers of knowledge. We must provide students with opportunities to be in charge of their learning, discover new ideas, gain insight, make connections, and construct their own knowledge. 35

41 In this section, we will build on our discussion of conceptual approaches to teaching and learning, and our understanding of learners and the learning process. Our discussion will focus on a) Characteristics of effective teaching; b) Planning courses and lessons; c) Selecting teaching strategies that foster engaged and active learning; and d) Using assessment to enhance both teaching and learning. 2.1 Key Concept 1: Characteristics of effective teaching Effective teaching in higher education can be characterized by a number of attributes or qualities. Chickering and Gamson (1987) have provided a succinct and parsimonious summary of key characteristics of teaching, based on a careful review of research, that are associated with effective learning in undergraduate education. This list is summarized below. 1. Encourages student teacher contact In and out of classes. Help students through rough times. 2. Encourages cooperation among students Collaboration and learning with others. Sharing one s ideas with others. Responding to the ideas of others. 3. Encourages active learning Encourage students to talk and write about what they are learning. Relate what they are learning to past experiences. Apply what they are learning to their daily lives. Help them make what they learn part of themselves. 36

42 4. Gives prompt feedback Provide frequent opportunities to perform and receive suggestions for improvement. Foster student s reflection on what they know, what they need to learn, and how to assess themselves. 5. Emphasizes time on task Communicate to students how much time they should be spending preparing for class and working on assignments. Expect students to complete assignments promptly. 6. Communicates high expectations Expect students to perform well. Provide positive reinforcement for exemplary work. Help students set challenging goals for their own learning 7. Respects diverse talents and ways of knowing Provide opportunities for students to show their talents and learn in ways that work for them. Use diverse teaching activities and techniques. Integrate material on women and ethnic minorities into the course Using this set of characteristics, we can then consider how to effectively approach the planning of our courses and individual session or lessons, select teaching strategies that address our learners goals and objectives, and how to assess the effectiveness of our teaching and the students learning. Whenever teachers plan or design their courses, they are in essence making a series of decisions aimed at creating a design, which in this case consists of a plan of activities for what the teacher and students will do in a course. This guide identifies the several decisions involved 37

43 in designing a course, places these decisions in an appropriate sequence, and suggests these three phases. 2.2 Key Concept 2: Syllabus/Course Planning Following are the main parameters for the syllabus/course Planning: Title of Course Course Objectives Credit Hours Themes and Sub Themes/Course Description Time Lines of course delivery and evaluation Assessment Procedure and Tools o o o o o Quiz Assignments Seminars Mid term Final Term Grading Plan Material Required 38

44 COURSE/SYLLABUS PLAN Subject: INSTRUCTOR: Semester: Course X, number, and title. Document title. Since you'll keep reference copies of syllabi for a number of semesters, the date is useful in distinguishing this syllabus from others that naturally look much the same. Instructor name sets syllabus apart from others for sections of the course possibly taught by other people, and of course it's important for students. OFFICE: OFFICE HOURS: OFFICE PHONE: ADDRESS: WEB PAGE: COURSE PAGE: CLASS CREDIT HOURS: The basics so students can communicate with you as easily as possible. Students appreciate (and need) easy access. They should not feel unduly restricted. John has found that students who phone are often hesitant and speak too softly to be heard, or they run together the last numbers of their phone numbers. So he makes a point of encouraging clarity on the phone. A. DESCRIPTION 39

45 The course -- what it is and how it fits into a program or supports other courses, needs, etc. Throughout this syllabus there are things students will not read the first day, but they probably will read it later, or they will use it later for reference. B. ORGANIZATION This could probably be worked into "purpose." But here John states very briefly "how" the course will be conducted and very roughly what will be involved. C. COURSE OBJECTIVES Five or six general, overall objectives of the course. These might be stated in the form of behavioral or performance objectives, but John has reserved that format for class and activity objectives that are more specific, differentiated, and quantifiable. cost them. D. COURSE TOPICS The course will cover the following topics: The units or topics of study. It shows the progression of topics and evidences your pre-course planning. E. TEXT AND REQUIRED SUPPLIES 1. Required text: 2. Supplies: Very important. Students need to know right away what materials they need and how much the course will F. GRADING PLAN Coursework will be weighted as follows: Quizzes Mid Term Final exam Attendance Very important and often explicitly required. Students MUST know how they are going to be graded, and they must know this as early as possible. This is the place to "put it in writing" and ensure that everyone is clear about it (students who enroll late should be given a syllabus upon entering the class). QUIZZES: Daily quizzes encourage regular attendance, emphasize the importance of each class, and are great teaching 40

46 tools. At the second class, students are quizzed principally on this syllabus. MID TERM: FINAL EXAM: ATTENDANCE: Attendance will be graded as follows: No absences A+ One absence Two absences Three absences A B C Four or more absences F If required, required attendance needs to be explainable, incorporated into course or activity objectives, and clarified the very first day of class. Six to 10 absences are often considered "reasonable" in employment over a year, and a semester course meets about one-quarter of a year, usually fewer than five days a week, and only a few hours each time, so six absences plus "excusable" absences and one "freebie" is probable reasonable in an occupational course. G. GENERAL: General grading policies really need to be spelled out as early as possible. The policies here are based on having tried probably everything else, finding that students very seldom make up "incompletes," and understanding that there are liability issues involved in recording a failing grade for any student when an "N" (no grade) is recorded for anyone else. Since settling on these policies years ago, John has never had a student complaint about a grade or ever struggled over a grade. H. CLASSROOM RULES OF CONDUCT Miscellaneous operating rules appropriate to the type of course and the classroom/lab environment. For trade courses, safety rules should be spelled out here or separately. I. YOUR IDEAS, EVALUATIONS, ETC. 41

47 The idea is to have a plan and policies in place, i.e., be organized, and at the same time be encouraging of questions, ideas, and opinions, whatever they are. J. SUGGESTIONS FOR SUCCESS Address expectations. An optional or alternative topic here might be "How to Take This Course," or information about its design for different learning styles. Many students will not read this "extra" material, but others on the first day are happened up and will read every word. 2.3 Key Concept 3: Developing lesson plans Session or lesson planning involves deciding what to teach and how to teach within any given session or lesson. Session plans are as individual as are teachers. Planning is a process that helps contribute to the consequences or product of teaching. Planning is essential for effective learning. The first step of planning is to think about what your students expect to know and do. It is necessary to know the levels of prior knowledge and ability of students. There are many strategies to know your students. When you know about your student, you may start planning. Now consider the topic and activities in a particular subject. When planning a particular session, think of objectives you want to achieve. You need to make decisions as to what information you want to teach your students within a given session. Keep in view time duration and student profile. Review the previous day s learning and then look forward. Developing linkages and a clear rationale will help you in motivating students to learn. Then think of the strategies or methods that are appropriate to your aims and objectives for the lesson. Also consider the sequence of your planned activities and the order in which you wish to proceed through the content. In selecting methods to address your objectives, consider these points: 1. Be aware of teaching methods beings used in your field. 2. Select methods that will more effectively accomplish your objectives. 42

48 3. Any method you select will need adaptation to your specific students and context. Provide examples and activities you will use. Activities and examples a teacher employs in a class are based on method and subject matter so that students can make connection between new and previous knowledge For example, brainstorming, before detailing might explain concept in a better way. Also decide whether the student describe their understanding individually or collectively. 2.4 Key Concept 4: Planning a session may include Title (Descriptive, perhaps the ordinal number for location in unit) Objectives Learning Objectives: (usually the learning as opposed to the foundational objectives). Common Essential Learning: (only suggest those which you specifically address) Instructional Method (This will be short hand for teachers familiar with instructional methods for using your lesson. Estimated Time Material (This is the part you must check at least two days before you teach, so that you have time to run off copies, make overheads, get out to the store, set things up. If the materials are those readily available in most classrooms, you do not need to list them.) 43

49 2.4.6 Motivational set It will keep the students interested throughout the unit Body of the lesson (Usually, you will talk for just a few minutes, to calm the students, welcome them, set the tone of how the class will proceed. Then, as much as possible, the students are active which means in science that they are intellectually active.) (During student activity, visit student groups as much as possible for monitoring and setting the tone of small group work, and for carrying out assessment. Assessment might be informal or you might have checklists or anecdotal comment sheets with you.) Debrief (There are a number of different debriefing methods suggested. Evaluation Assessing student learning as simple final way of assessment is a minute paper. At the end of each session, ask students to write these two questions. What was the most important thing you learned during this session? What important questions remained unanswered for you? These papers are usually anonymous but these will give you a fait assessment of student learning and achievement of learning out comes. These assessments only take a few minutes to administer (Teacher do not formally evaluate for every lesson. However, if teacher do not have a formal evaluation for a particular lesson, how will you formally evaluate those objectives in a long term assignment? In an exam? In a class presentation? List the form and anticipated date of the evaluation.) Teacher Name: Table 4. Daily session plan DATE Duration COURSE 44

50 UNIT/CHAPTER TOPIC Objectives/Learning Outcomes Set Induction Content Methodology/Approach INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS, MATERIALS, OR TOOLS NEEDED Activities Summary Learning Assessment Suggested Readings ASSIGNMENT NOTES 45

51 4. Learning Activities 4.1 Learning Activity 1 Step 1: The Module Leader (ML) should have the participants seated in oval shape arrangement and ask them the procedure of the course/syllabus development in their universities. Step 2: He/she may present the course/syllabus template to each of the participant and ask them how it fits in their practices, in brainstorming session 30 minutes duration. Step 3: the ML would divide the participants in the group of the same subjects and each group may plan a course in collaboration with the ML on the template. 4.2 Activity 2 Step 1: ML would may distribute above worksheet (lesson plan) among the participants and ask them to develop a lesson plan of one and half duration of his/her particular subject he/she is teaching in college/university. Step 2: The developed lesson plan may be peer reviewed by the participants. 5. Summary and Transition Teacher is facilitator who assist the students in learner-centered learning by focusing his/her instructions on the characteristics of learners i.e. encouragement (i) student-teacher contact, (ii) cooperation among students, (iii) active learning-feedback (iv) completion of assignments in time (vi) high expectations (vii) diversity and (viii) integration. Teacher builds strong primary components, assembles the components into dynamic coherent whole, takes care of important whole, then develops lesson plan from original material for daily use in the classroom. 46

52 Course/syllabus planning is another important component in which the teacher needs to be competent enough. The course/syllabus planning components consists of title of course, course objectives, credit hours, course description, time lines of course delivery with evaluation, assessment, procedure and tool, grading plan and materials required Brainstorming if carried out before lesson planning might lead to a better delivery in the classroom. Objectives lead the whole activity; instructional material, time/duration, instructional aids/material, lesson outline, evaluation, assignments. These should be sequence in presentation, and assessing the students. But there is no single way of presenting instruction. Here teacher has to choose among the variety. 6. Assessment Review the syllabi and lesson plans constructed by the participants to determine their level of understanding of the key principles involved. 47

53 Session VI-VII: Selecting instructional strategies and techniques 1. Session Learning Outcomes At the end of this session, participants will be able to: Demonstrate knowledge of several instructional strategies that foster active and engaged learning. Use active lecture techniques to enhance student involvement in presentations. Use collaborative learning strategies to help students learn from one another. Help students use their prior knowledge and experience in learning the material. Make effective use of inquiry-based approaches to teaching. Be willing to try team teaching as a means of improving their teaching. Make effective use of appropriate assessment procedures to provide feedback on one s teaching. 2. Key Concepts and Content The primary concern in selecting instructional strategies is that they align with the objectives or intended outcomes for your students. If your objectives focus on helping students acquire and master a body of information the instructional design or plan should reflect those strategies that are most effective in fostering his objective. 2.1 Key Concept 1: Interactive Teaching The strategies for mastering information are not necessarily the most effective for fostering critical thinking and skills of inquiry among your students. These may include collaborative, discussion, problem based, peer teaching among others (fig. 3). In all cases, your teaching methods should focus on encouraging active and engaged learning among your 48

54 students. Even acquiring and mastering information can be approached from the perspective of teaching that is learner -centered and engages the students actively in the learning process. Figure 3. Interactive. In constructivist approaches to teaching, the emphasis is on learning from experience and making sense of that experience. We refer to this process as interactive teaching. In approaching this overall focus, we will first provide an overall sense of interactive teaching and then illustrate this approach with some specific forms of teaching methods, such as collaborative learning, case based instruction, etc. Teachers interact with students and challenge their thinking to stimulate new ideas. Terms that reflect this approach are focused thinking and teacher as cognitive coach. Students prior ideas and experiences are valued, and this process powers them to become independent learners. In this approach to teaching, both teachers and students learn. Teacher 49

55 learns to use their interactive skills to listen carefully and college the misconceptions of students. In interactive teaching, the teacher s own knowledge will play important role. The teacher should know the background of the students such as ideas, thoughts, understanding and either they learn individually or in groups and then he should provide new information for them. This approach is mostly used in reading and mathematics but it can be used in all types of curriculum for example in science lesson where the teacher can find time, space and energy for too many activities. In this approach the role of the teacher is activity manager. He provides chances for students to make sense and reflect on their experiences, check their performance and set goals for future learning. Here the teacher develops classrooms where students are helped to make sense reflect their own experiences, evaluate their work and set further goals. In these classrooms, students articulate how they learn, are able to express the problem, prior ideas, plans of how to address the problem, and evaluation of the outcome. This process engages the student actively in the learning process. When teachers ask the student to work in s mall groups to solve a problem, discussions that occur help build more knowledge structure and high motivation level. Interactive teaching is a two way process wherein the lecturer modifies his or her approach in response to the needs of the learner(s). The interactive lecturer is keenly aware of the learners and their different learning styles. All good lecturers are interactive lecturers. It is not possible to teach effectively without interaction. Fortunately, there is considerable information available on both the use of active lecture and collaborative learning that you can use to make your teaching more active and learner -centered. As you plan and select instructional strategies, keep in mind the information we have discussed on approaches to teaching, characteristics of the learner and the learning process, and principles of effective teaching. Make sure your lesson plan reflects effective principles of adult learning. 50

56 2.2 Key Concept 2: Active lecture As diagram (fig. 3) suggests, there are a number of activities that can be used with lectures to help actively engage students in the learning process. Among the most popular-are the one minute paper, muddiest point, and buzz groups. With the one-minutes paper, students are periodically asked to spend one to two minutes at the end of a lecture or a topic to reflect on and write about what they understand the key points or concepts to be of a given lecture or topic. This method provides the students with practice in thinking about these ideas and the teacher with feedback on how well the students understand the material. The muddiest point technique asks students to reflect on and assess their own understanding of the material and to write down and hand in specific points of the lecture that they feel they do not understand as well as they would like. The teacher can then construct a mini -lecture around the specific points identified by the students. Buzz groups can also be used to help students share and discuss their understanding and questions with one another. These are typically short, five-minute activities, in which students turn to the person or persons seated next to them and focus on a specific assignment provided by the teacher. This assignment relates to and extends the material in the lectures. There are many other forms of active lecture that can also be used to improve your lectures, such as McKeachie s Teaching Tips (provided in the references) or online (such as Delivering Effective Lectures ). 2.3 Key Concept 3: Collaborative learning Collaborative learning can be described as means of providing opportunities for pupils to work together as a team in accomplishing a set of given objectives. It is collaborative in nature and focuses on individual accountability to team success. A major benefit of collaborative learning includes the nurturance and development of social interaction skills. 51

57 Collaborative learning methods consist of a family of teaching strategies that require students to work together on an assignment, question, problem, or case. They can be used to address fairly well -structured questions and tasks, such as learning the anatomical structure of the brain, or for more ill -structured problems, such as addressing the possible causes of a bridge collapse in mechanical engineering, or global warming in earth or environmental sciences. Collaborative and collaborative learning are sometimes used interchangeably and sometimes to designate different forms of learning through social interaction among students. Here we use the latter term. Cooperative approaches generally focus on well structured problems, such as learning the anatomical structure of the brain. Other collaborative learning methods, such as PBL and case -based instruction, focus on ill-structured problems, where there is no one right answer. For example, workshop participants may want to address the problem of how to motivate students in their classes. Figure 3. Cooperative. 52

58 Collaborative learning as a teaching strategy relies on the following: Pupils are assigned to small groups or teams (ideally no more than 4 members in a group), Teams are comprised of pupils of different ability levels. The immediate intention is that each member of the "team" accepts the responsibility to achieve the goal(s) of instruction while helping any teammates who need assistance. Tasks or activities that are assigned can vary in nature depending on the grade level. The ultimate goal is to promote positive relationships and mutual respect among teammates, to foster accountability (both individual and group), and to provide a venue for problem solving as a team. 2.4 Key Concept 4: Experience Sharing Experience as a general concept comprises knowledge of or skill in or observation of something or some event gained through involvement in or exposure to that thing or event. The experiences here include activities such as writing, drawing, speaking, meeting, sports, traveling etc., in personal or group context, and interactions with other people and/or artificial artifacts. Recorded experiences by means of digital video, tactile sensors, location tracking device, etc. can be used as a source for various tasks in daily life, business, education and security. They include, for example, multi-media memory aids, reference for context recognition, creation of a model of person's activities and story -telling of life. Mostly history or social sciences teachers at university level used this technique as teaching abstract concepts. This method is also effective for learning through participatory teaching/learning. 2.5 Key Concept 5: Inquiry -based Teaching Inquire-based learning is a specific form of collaborative learning. This term al so is best thought of as a group or family of teaching strategies that illustrate interactive teaching, active learning, engaged learning, etc. To inquire is to ask about something, to research into it, especially by 53

59 asking question and this is the theme o f inquiry based learning. Inquiry-based teaching fosters the development of skills and attitudes for seeking solutions to questions and issues while constructing new knowledge. Inquiry based teaching is student centered. This helps students to formulate question, investigate and critically evaluate the perspectives and position by reviewing primary sources and gathering evidence from various sources to formulate decision. During this process, a variety of alternative solutions to the problem are usually identified, and the learner needs to decide which of these solutions is most appropriate to the problem and its context. While this is often no one right answer, this method usually involves group work where cooperation and sharing is carried out, in using this technique, the teacher fosters an open atmosphere, where students are allowed to express their opinions. Figure 4. Inquiry based teaching. As the preceding fig.5 suggests, inquiry -based teaching involves both fostering reflection and problem-solving skills among students. Teaching to foster reflection or critical 54

60 reflect ion among your students is and activity or process in which you encourage students to recall, consider and evaluate prior experiences. In summary, inquiry -based teaching is the process of formulating questions, organizing ideas, exploring and evaluating information, analyzing and synthesizing data, and communicating findings and conclusions. Inquiry based teaching is a student -centered, active learning approach focusing on: Questioning Critical thinking Problem-solving Fostering reflective learning involves careful, critical examination of an idea in light of supporting knowledge and testable evidence which further supports it. Teaching for reflective learning means problem-centered teaching Sexena and Oberi 1994). The teacher places a problem before the students. The problem is evocating and engaging, and arouses tension within the student. This tension motivates the students o solve the problems by formulation of Hypothesis (Tentative intellectual guess to the problem) and testing it this in all result of their motivation and activeness. Conclusions from this analysis, examination, and testing are then drawn. Teaching for critical reflection includes both understanding and memory level teaching. This level of teaching cannot take place of the teaching of memory and understanding level has not taken place earlier. 2.6 Key Concept 6: Problem Based Learning Problem based learning is the process of obtaining a satisfactory solution to a novel problem, or at least a problem which the problem solver has not seen before. The purpose of problem-solving teaching strategies is to have students consider and reflect upon a variety of problems that can take place in the context of the topics/subjects/disciplines under consideration in the course. They can also practice research, work with real problems and 55

61 issues, and discover ways of dealing with the problems and issues. It is cognitive but is inferred from behavior. It is a process that involves manipulation of or operations on previous knowledge. Often it is applied to real life situations to locate underling issues and to consider possible solutions to these problems and issues. Students must consider possible causes, solutions, and select what they consider to be the most appropriate for the situation. In summary the problem based learning consists of the following steps: Identify and analyze the problem. Define the problem through thinking about it and sorting out the relevant information. Explore solutions through looking at alternatives, brainstorming, and checking out different points of view. Act on the strategies. Look back and evaluate the effects of your activity. Teaching through problem solving is not always easy since many of us were taught by remembering facts whether or not they were related to each other, whether or not we were interested in the subject, and in some instances we were taught by rote. In fact, many teachers may say that problem solving in their particular subject area is not possible, not helpful, or only possible in limited parts of the subject matter. However, everything that can be taught may be taught from a problem solving point of reference. 2.7 Key Concept 7: Team Teaching Team teaching is when two or more teachers collaborate to teach a group of students together. This can also be practiced at the university level. War Wick (1972) defines team teaching as is a form of organization in which individual teachers decide to pool resources, interest and expertise in order to device and implement a scheme of work suitable to the needs of their pupils and the facilities of their schools on analysis of the different definitions of different experts. 56

62 Kochhat (1990) has derived the following characteristics for team teaching. It is form of instructional organization. Involves a group of teachers working purposefully, regularly, and cooperatively to help a group of students. Resources are pooled together. Team teaching centers on the needs of the pupils. Teachers together set goals for a course, design a syllabus, prepare individual lesson plans, teach students, and evaluate the results. They share insights, argue with one another, and perhaps even challenge students to decide which approach is better. Teams can be single -discipline, interdisciplinary, or school -within -aschool teams that meet with a common set of students over an extended period of time. Allows for more interaction between teachers and students. Working in teams spreads responsibility, encourages creativity, deepens friendships, and builds community among teachers. Teachers complement one another. A number of teachers joins hand and decide to take action. It is cooperative activity; teachers give time and energy enthusiastically to make the instructional organization to work. They share insights, propose new approaches, and challenge assumptions. They learn new perspectives and insights, techniques and values from watching one another. 57

63 Students enter into conversations between them as they debate, disagree with premises or conclusions, raise new questions, and point out consequences. Contrasting viewpoints encourage more active class participation and independent thinking from students, especially if there is team balance for gender, race, culture, and age. Team teaching is particularly effective with older and underprepared students when it moves beyond communicating facts to tap into their life experience. Team teaching may be carried out by specialist teachers in a single subject. These specialist teachers may restrict their students to a particular age group but subject specialists from different fields work together with mixed age and ability groups. 2.8 Key Concept 8: Assessing Teaching and Learning The teacher as facilitator will assess the students from beginning to end and not only at the closure of a class and intimate the students accordingly. Emotional climate will in continual evaluation process also it is better to assess, plan and implement and evaluate the process jointly by the all concerned (teacher and his colleagues) so that revision and updating after feedback may facilitate the learning process more effectively. Interactive or participatory teaching methods for skill building and changing attitude are class discussions, brainstorming, demonstration and guided practice, role play, small groups, educational games and simulations, case studies storytelling, debates, practicing life skills specific to a particular context with others, audio and video activities and decision mapping or problem solving. Natural processes like observations, modeling and social interaction are utilized in the interact/participatory learning methods. 58

64 If we are to move students toward independence, we must take the position of guide and facilitator, helping students use what they know to learn what they need to know. We must give them opportunities for meaningful conversations that support their thinking, hold them accountable for their learning, and be thoughtful with our questions Formative versus summative assessments Formative evaluation is an effective technique which may be utilized during the session teaching right from the beginning to the end A university teacher may not utilized it for the getting feedback but also for improving his/her interactive teaching in each session. This will be helpful in realizing the students to participate in teaching-learning process lively and actively. Teacher should not depend upon traditional summative evaluation though it gives a picture of the student s evaluation for grading but it is hardly useful for improving teaching learning process for a particular session. On the other hand formative evaluation process is a continuous and regular feedback as well as evaluation of the session. 3. Teaching Approaches 3. Interactive 4. Collaborative 5. Problem Based 6. Inquiry Method 7. Reflective Practice 8. Practicing the teaching methods/strategies 4. Learning Activities 4.1 Activity 1: Brainstorming 59

65 The ML may conduct brainstorming on all the teaching strategies briefly for 15 minutes by involving participants in identifying the techniques they are using in their daily classroom teaching. 4.2 Activity 2: Introduce Teaching Strategies The ML may introduce all the seven teaching strategies and motivate them to use a variety of techniques keeping in view the adult learner and emerging trends. 4.3 Activity 3: Groups Present Techniques Each group will give 5 minutes presentation on the technique they have worked upon. 4.4 Activity 4: View Videos View these videos and discuss Team Teaching Inquiry Based Learning Students v=z8lh5mfye-e 4.5 Activity 5: Sum Up The ML will sum up the proceeding 5. Summary & Transition Teaching strategies are to be selected by the teacher in line with objectives. Effective teaching interact with the students and challenges them to think new ideas, hence interactive teaching is a two ways process. Active teaching is an umbrella which may include; active lecture, collaborative teaching/learning, experience sharing, inquiry based teaching/learning and team teaching. Active teaching skill may be gained by having mastery over different aspects/components of teaching through microteaching. 60

66 D. Materials D.1 Learning Materials of Session I: Kolb Learning Style Inventory Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall. The Learning Style Inventory (LSI) is a simple self-description test, based on experiential learning theory, which is designed to measure your strengths and weaknesses as a learner. Experiential learning is conceived as a four stage cycle: Immediate concrete experience is the basis for Observation and reflection; These observations are assimilated into a "theory" from which new implications for action can be deduced These implications or hypotheses then serve as guides in acting to create new experiences. The effective learner relies on four different learning modes: Concrete Experience (CE), Reflective Observation (RO), Abstract Conceptualization (AC), and Active Experimentation (AE). That is, she or he must be able to involve himself or herself fully, openly, and without bias in new experiences (CE), he must be able to reflect on and observe these experiences from many perspectives (RO), he must be able to create concepts that integrate his observations into logically sound theories (AC), and he must be able to use these theories to make decisions and solve problems (AE). A high score on Concrete Experience represents a receptive, experience-based to learning that relies heavily on feeling-based judgments. High CE individuals tend to be empathetic and "people-oriented." They generally find theoretical approaches to be unhelpful 61

67 and prefer to treat each situation as a unique case. They learn best from specific examples in which they can become involved. Individuals who emphasize Concrete Experience tend to be oriented more towards peers and less toward authority in their approach to learning, and benefit most from feedback and discussion with fellow CE learners. A high score on Abstract Conceptualization indicates an analytical, conceptual approach to learning that relies heavily on logical thinking and rational evaluation. High AC individuals tend to be oriented more towards things and symbols and less towards other people. They learn best in authority-directed, impersonal learning situations that emphasize theory and systematic analysis. They are frustrated by and benefit little form unstructured "discovery" learning approaches like exercises and simulations. A high score on Active Experimentation indicates an active, "doing" orientation to learning that relies heavily on experimentation. High AE individuals learn best when they can engage in such things as projects, homework, or small group discussions. They dislike passive learning situation such as lectures. These individuals tend to be extroverts. A high score on Reflective Observation indicates a tentative, impartial and reflective approach to learning. High RO individuals rely heavily on careful observation in making judgments, and prefer learning situations such as lectures that allow them to take the role of impartial objective observers. These individuals tend to be introverts. CONVERGER - Those with highest scores in Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and Active Experimentation (AE). This person's greatest strength lies in the practical application of ideas. A person with this style seems to do best in those situations where there is a single correct answer or solution to a question or problem and can focus on specific problems or situations. Research on this style of learning shows that Convergers are relatively unemotional, preferring to deal with things rather than people. They often choose to specialize in the physical sciences, 62

68 engineering, and computer sciences. DIVERGER - Those with highest scores in Concrete Experience (CE) and Reflective Observation (RO). Divergers have characteristics opposite from convergers. Their greatest strengths lie in creativity and imaginative ability. A person with this learning style excels in the ability to view concrete situations from many perspectives and generate many ideas such as in a "brainstorming" session. Research shows that Divergers are interested in people and tend to be imaginative and emotional. They tend to be interested in the arts and often have humanities or liberal arts backgrounds. Counselors, organizational development specialists, and personnel managers tend to be characterized by this learning style. ASSIMILATOR - Those with highest scores in Abstract Conceptualization (AC) and Reflective Observation (RO). This person's strength lies in the ability to understand and create theories. A person with this learning style excels in inductive reasoning and in synthesizing various ideas and observations into an integrated whole. This person, like the converger, is less interested in people and more concerned with abstract concepts, but is less concerned with the practical use of theories. For this person it is more important that the theory be logically sound and precise; in a situation where a theory or plan does not fit the "facts," the Assimilator would be likely to disregard or re-examine the facts. As a result, this learning style is more characteristic of the basic sciences and mathematics rather than the applied sciences. Assimilators often choose careers involving research and planning. ACCOMMODATOR.- Those with highest scores in Concrete Experience (CE) and Active Experimentation (AE). Accommodators are polar opposites form Assimilators. Their greatest strengths lie in carrying out plans and experiments and involving themselves in new experiences. They are risk-takers and excel in those situations requiring quick decisions and adaptations. In situations where a theory or plan does not fit the "facts," they tend to 63

69 discard it and try something else. They often solve problems in an intuitive trial and error manner, relying heavily on other people for information. Accomodators are at ease with people but may be seen as impatient and "pushy." Their educational background is often in practical fields such as business or education. They prefer action-oriented" jobs such as nursing, teaching, marketing, or sales. References Kolb, D. (1985). Learning style inventory. Boston, MA: McBer and Company. Lamberski, R. (2002). Kolb learning style inventory. Available at htm. Here is the short exercise that I use in my courses based on the KOLB inventory test I took for the Graduate teacher program I have given more palatable names to the learning styles for the purpose of referring to them in class. The names are below and the little activity I use is directly adapted from the original Kolb inventory (it is copyrighted so I just pulled five of the twenty questions ) My learning style titles = Kolb titles Devil s Advocate Learner = CONVERGER Social Comfort Learner = DIVERGER Hand s On Learner = ACCOMODATOR Fact Oriented Learner = ASSIMILATOR 64

70 Kolb Learning Inventory, Quick Activity 4= most like you, 1= least like you rank each response. When I learn I like to deal with my feelings. (CE) I like to be doing things. (AE) I like to think about ideas. (AC) I like to watch and listen. (RO) I learn best when I listen and watch carefully. (RO) I trust my hunches and feelings. (CE) I rely on logical thinking. (AC) I work hard to get things done. (AE) When I am learning I tend to reason things out.(ac) I am quiet and reserved. (RO) I am responsible about things. (AE) I have strong feelings & reactions. (CE) I learn by feeling. (CE) watching. (RO) doing. (AE) thinking. (AC) When I learn I get involved. (CE) I evaluate things. (AC) I like to observe. (RO) I like to be active. (AE) AE-Active Experimentation Score: RO-Reflective Observation Score: CE-Concrete Experience Score: AC-Abstract Conceptualization Score: Which two scores are your highest scores? 65

71 E. References & Bibliography Angelo, T. A. & Cross, K. P Class room Assessment Techniques Examples," From Classroom Assessment Techniques, A Handbook for College Teachers 2nd edition,,jossey -Bass, htm Barr, R.B. and Tagg, (1995). From teaching to learning: A new paradigm for undergraduate education., Change 27(6), Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., and Cocking, R. R. (eds. ) How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition (2000). National Research Council. Chickering, A.W. and Ehrmann, S.C. Implementing the Seven Principles: Technology as Lever, pp Chickering, A. W. and Gamson, Z.F. Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education, American Association of Higher Education Bulletin, pp Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Books education, New York: Collier Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic Books. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning theory: Experience as the source of learning and development Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall..1 Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self -directed learning: Pillars of adult learning theory. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, v.89, p Merriam S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Palmer, Parker J. The Courage to Teach: Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher s Life. San Francisco: Jossey-Boss, ISBN

72 Pratt, Daniel D. and Associates (1998). Five Perspectives on Teaching in Adult and Higher Education Malabar, Krieger Svinicki, M., McKeachie, W., & Others (2006). McKeachie s Teaching Tips: Strategi es, Research, and Theory for Colege and University Teachers. Twelfth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, ISBN Tagg, John. (2003). The Learning Paradigm Colege San Francisco: Anker Publishing. Weimer, M. Learning Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. San Francisco: Jossey- Boss. Vella, J. (2002). Learning to listen, learning to teach: The power of dialogue in educating adults (Revised edition). San Francisco: Jossey -Bass. (Twelve principles for helping adults learn effective, told through stories of practice). 67