The drawings have originally been made for the teaching material for The Pedagogical ICT Driving License in Denmark

Transcription

1 UNESCO Institute for Information Technoogies in Education (IITE) FOR TEACHER TRAINING Produced by a working party of the Internationa Federation IFIP for Information Processing (I FIP) Editoria working group With contribution from Drawings by Nina Beier Anton Knierzinger Sindre Rosvik Ering Schmidt Mike Aston, Boyka Gradinarova, Hajime Ohiwa, Rau Sidnei Wazawick, Hongbo Zhang The drawings have originay been made for the teaching materia for The Pedagogica ICT Driving License in Denmark The opinions expressed in this document are those of the authors and do not necessary refect the views of the UNESCO Secretariat For further information pease contact: UNESCO Institute for Information Technoogies in Education 8 Kedrova St. (Bd. 3), Moscow, , Russian Federation Te. (7-095) Fax. (7-095) E-mai: info@iite.ru Website: ISBN ( EDUCATION-SERVICE Pubishing House) 0 UNESCO Institute for Information Technoogies in Education, 2001/2002

2 Genera Aim FOREWORD Appication of information and communication technoogies infuencing and changing the word and a human being and giving rise to information society, is used as a productive too for positive transformation in a areas. Introduction of information and communication technoogies ( ICTs) in education shoud not foow, but surpass a changes in other fieds. The main mission of the UNESCO Institute for Information Technoogies in Education (IITE) is to reinforce nationa capacities in UNESCO Member States in ICT appication in their education systems, to assist them in designing poicies for integrating ICTs into education, improving nationa action pans, eaborating methodoogica materias, training and re-training of educationa personne on ICT appication in education. In this roe the Institute is striving to faciitate the exchange of experience and best practice on ICT usage in education among UNESCO Member States. Information and Communication Technoogies in Education The age of new information and communication technoogies has entaied dramatic changes in production and peope business activities, They are infuencing and changing the word and human ife, eading to the appearance of the information society in which not so much materia resources but information and scientific knowedge wi be objects and resuts ofwork of the majority ofempoyed popuation. Thus, succeeding generations wi face the chaenges ofadjusting to new socia environment wherein information and scientific knowedge wi repace the matter and energy as its pivota factors and wi define both society s strategic potentia and prospects for its deveopment. New socia demands and the new word around us shaped by new information and communication technoogies and modes ofaction ca for New Literacy for information society. It is worth mentioning that the information and communication technoogies have brought about dramatic changes in the educationa technoogies of obtaining knowedge, its transformation in education and education into actions. Education today is in the process of very fast (on the scae of human generations, not miennia) changes of priorities. Forma knowedge and skis are shadowed; priorities of genera deveopment, sef-controed earning. team-work, reevant and motivative prqject activities are coming to the scene. Information and communication technoogies are paying more and more critica roe in this process. But it wi be a mistake to think that new information and communication technoogies automaticay raise quaity of education. It is worth keeping in mind that new information technoogies are better suited for adapting didactics to the mode of thinking which operates association, rather than direct and consecutive notices. In order to expoit effectivey the opportunities of new information and communication technoogies, new methodoogica and pedagogica approaches sha be better expored and empoyed by the teachers. The roe of a teacher is changing - s/he becomes the Master of earning, sef-deveopment, reacting to the unknown. It seems to be not out of pace to remark that there are many teaching and earning situations where pedagogy and technoogy woud be so densey intertwined that it becomes very hard to te for sure where one ends and the other begins. Hence, the question arises: How can teachers earn a ofthis? The book ofanton Knierzinger, Sindre Rssvik, and Ering Schmidt gives us the answer to this question. The site for teacher earning is the schoo where s/he works, and schoos have advanced in the sense of ICT use in earning. Trainers, Instructors are, primariy, other teachers as we as students. Naturay, the process is starting in cooperation with university peope intensivey invoved in the process of work at schoos. The specific projects used are reevant to a teacher, his/her work and ife. Among them are projects on teacher-student heritage, on the very process of earning in the group ofteachers as students. Coping with Change The book you are about to read wi not give you exampes of specific ICT-based activities in the cassroom. But it provides you with some very important guideineson what is necessary for successfu traveing across the immense variety ofoptions brought forth with an advent of ICTs. It is your task to decide which one coud suit you best. Don t forget the main point that the authors never fai to remind us of: Pedagogy not technoogy shoud be in the forefront when impementing ICTs into teaching and earning. State-of-the-Art Curricuum This Eementary ICT Curricuum For Teacher Training is a state-of-the-art curricuum. After reading Curricuum you may get a feeing that your wish for driving the computer across the Land of ICTs has increased consideraby. but is not yet fuy satisfied. Do not be confused - it is quite natura for any honest twenty-first century schooteacher. The fied of action, as the book deinity testifies, resembes not so much of a highway, or even inner-city curved streets to drive in, but rather high stormy seas where a captain is in charge of managing a ship. Hence. the course in navigation and accompanying maritime arts seems a more adequate working metaphor than a driving icence for anyone wiing to reay master the craft.

3 LIST OF CONTENT.INTRODUCTION THE ROLE OF ICT IN SCHOOLS The Roe of Education in Society Roe of ICT in Society and Education.. * Schoo of the Industria Age Schoo in a Digita Age ICT IN THE DEVELOPING NATIONS The Goba Imperative The Roe of the Internet Some Issues to be Addressed Key Eements in Designing an Eementary ICT Curricuum forteachertraining Some Case Studies of Nationa ICT Programmes Repubic of Mauritius Maaysia Pakistan Some Exampe Case Studies of Distance Education Invoving Communications Technoogies with Varying Success THE MATRIX OF COMPETENCES Introduction How to Use the Matrix The Matrix Adequate Technoogy Competence ICT Productivity Toos Teaching and Learning Assessment and Evauation * * : : : * NATIONALREPORTS. 5.1 Bugaria China Denmark Brasi Japan IFIP - INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION FOR INFORMATION PROCESSING IFIPTC iizii

4 1. INTRODUCTION By impementing information and communication technoogy (ICT), or digita technoogies, education is transformed into the digita reaity. This means that the technoogy is not merey an add-on; it transforms education to a digita society with substantia consequences to the schoo system in organising the earning environment, teaching methods and the content of earning. But the resut of this transformation is not soey given by the technoogy, rather by the choices made by poicymakers, educationaists and earners. Keeping in mind that the digita technoogies have inherited vaues, pros and cons, it benefits some but represents new obstaces to others. Hence, those peope in charge shoud be determinedy active to introduce ICT to schoos in a critica but constructive way. Teacher education programmes wi no doubt be the most critica factor for successfu resuts, with wide-ranging consequences to the deveopment of the prosperity of the future society. Since schoos are aready in pace, with mosty we-trained but traditiona minded teachers, the main chaenge wi be the deveopment of introductory and retraining programmes for these bearers of the schoo institution. Teachers are trained for the industria society, which is organised and working in a different way than the emerging new economies and cutures. It must therefore be strongy emphasised that such a programme of an ICT curricuum for teacher training is not mainy an introduction of hardware and software but rather a reconstruction of schooing and earning. This is not a programme to make teachers famiiar to ICT, even if this is the starting point. Introducing digita technoogies wi be a ong-term commitment and a programme of ifeong earning for teachers. It wi aso be a most chaenging programme for the educationa eaders who wi be in charge of the reconstruction, as they wi have to motive their staff to work towards new, open ended, not finay defined goas. It is most urgent to give substantia attention to programmes for educationa eaders at a eves. This is the ony way to prevent enormous oss of organisationa energy, and to avoid a situation where there are competing agendas, competing curricua, and competing structures. Hegemonic fights are ikey to take pace, aong with fruitfu and vaue-refective discussions. Critica aspects and individua stands shoud be respected and vaued. Books, spoken words, traditiona content and methods shoud prosper and be further deveoped aso in a digita schoo environment. 5

5 INTRODUCTION The needs of teacher training are to be anaysed in the perspective of traditions within teacher training coeges and universities, wherever it is ocated and within the nationa context. Secondy ICT in teacher training have to refect the situation of ICT in schoos, ocay and nationay Finay oca or nationa initiatives must take a reaistic starting point concerning actua resources avaiabe in society, schoos and teacher training, not any utopian wishes or need for immediate poitica showcases. It can be noted that most Western countries have earned essons focusing on how schoos and teacher training ought to use ICT, rather then starting from the actua state of art. Shortcuts cannot be done, not considering basic organisationa and motivationa questions. On the other hand, carefu and brave panning focused on reaistic actions does make a difference, supporting deveopments of new earning initiatives incuding distance-earning technoogies. 6

6 2. THE ROLE OF ICT IN SCHOOLS 2.1 The Roe of Education in Society The end of the 20 century was dominated by economic crises causing turbuence, conficts and majors poitica changes wordwide. These changes, of course, aso have ideoogica and other cutura reasons as we. What is primary or secondary wi not be discussed here, but the drama represents an important background in our fied of study. A main point is that wordwide changes are experienced, from state to individua eve. Information and communication technoogies do pay a substantia roe in this drama, in the financia word, in the cutura word and subsequenty the word of poitics. Education poicy is commony considered secondary to other poitica fieds in genera, and of economica poicy especiay. Nevertheess education has been considered important in every society; from fathers and mothers teaching their own chidren in ancient cutures to our compex education systems of today. In other respects, education is often taken for granted, or seen as ess important compared with other issues ike economy or miitary issues. I.e. Marx and Lenin saw education as secondary to poitica action. Cutura and educationa reform must foow poitica actions. However after the revoution, education became important in buiding the new sociaist state (Fagerind/Saha, 1989: p. 255). To quote Coeman: Considered education (primariy former education) to perform important functions in the poitica system. These functions incuded (a) the sociaisation of chidren and youth into the poitica cuture, (b) the seection, recruitment, and training of poitica eite, and (c) the poitica integration or nationa buiding of groups of peope (Byron G. Massiaas: Comparative Education Review, 1977: p. 274). Without going into the concusions of this artice, this statement exempifies assumptions about the roe of schooing in society. Massiaas, in the same artice, stated that poitica systems need support from its citizens to survive and that education often has provided this support through poitica sociaisation. And further: If the orientations imparted by education or other socia agents (e.g. the famiy, the church, the peer 7

7 THE ROLE OF /CT IN SCHOOLS group) were not supportive of the system, the system either coapsed or changed in order to meet the new demands arising out of new orientations and expectations. Education may contribute to system change or maintenance, or even to both at the same time being an agent for change and changed by society. By contradiction education may both produce socia mobiity and reproduce the socia order (Fagerind & Saha, p. 225). In the new, digitaised, information and communication society these aspects are, for certain, changed. These changes do chaenge od structures and traditions and need to be handed, or new deveopments wi take pace outside traditiona structures and pans, finding their own way ike a river taking a new route. According to Heesnes (1988: p. 39), within western phiosophic traditions there is an everasting search for futed orientation points, Archimedes centers, resuting in rows of succeeding poitica ideoogies. The paradigm shift may expose a need to revise these fixed points or given centers of orientation, reveaing probems that regimes have not been facing or even hiding. In open information societies ike open economies the exposure is immediate. This can ead from one situation-ironica scenery iusion to another. The pre-understanding of new situations ike, for exampe, market economy, and vice versa, may turn out to be different ofwhat it was thought it to be. Education, in any sense of the word, is considered of great importance to nationa economica panning and poitica deveopment. However, strategies are different in different societies, according to the pace of deveopment and need. It is not unikey that the metaphysica irony (Heesnes 1988: 56) is represented in educationa poicy Consequenty it wi be experienced that different systems may aso ead to troube and mistakes. Experience opens eyes to the irony of the situation and eads to the metaphysica irony eve. But experience may ead to absoute knowedge or to confusion, and confusion is often the resut. Absoute knowedge is apparenty not achievabe in the fied of poitics. The schoo system is a function of cuture and socia traditions. Reigion is cosey reated with cuture in a duaistic way; it is not aways possibe to te how, or to what extent cuture infuences reigion or choice of reigion, or vice versa. Cuture itsef infuences reigion, but is aso infuenced by reigion. It is in this same way that the schoo system was formed and is thus formed by society, A diaectic mode of education and the deveopment dimensions iustrates this (Fagerind/Saha, 1983: p. 197). PoItica (IdeoogIcaI (Cutura1 &we 1: Modefor diaectica anaysis Economca In strategic panning it is necessary to keep in mind these dependencies. A kinds of states in different ways use the schoo system in achieving poitica, ideoogica and economica goas. Puraistic societies have to have an open approach in order to meet different views represented in the popuation. Ideoogies press each other and aternate in domination, causing waves and movements of change, progress or regression. Ideoogies function as guideines for institutions, very often in a form of compromises. If compromises are not possibe, new institutions, with a dominant ideoogy, may appear.

8 The Roe et EfhfciWee in Sedehf To differentiate between nationa characteristicay incidents and a common internationa trend wi aways be difficut. No deveopment takes pace in a vacuum. This means that events are inked together both at a micro and macro eve. Internationa trends are transformed onto the oca eve and with oca characteristics. Changes at the oca (or nationa) eve may be caused by genuine oca ideas deveoped out of the economica, socia or environmenta situation. Genuine ideas aways have a oca origin, they are born somewhere, and it can be exciting to see in what way the crises and demand for change fertiises the educationa soi. A rising fow of information wi resut in a fux of ideas. The rea outcome, however, can be growing convergence of cutures and practices gobay and divergence of cutures ocay. In the digitaised information society fows are rich, and questions of domination and infuence are vita. Poitica systems have conserving as we as changing forces. Poitics can be described as a baance between tradition and change. The changes may have many faces, ibera, conservative, sociaistic, etc. Counseing and research bodies suppy the system with innovations. Both poiticians and administration wi use research for their own purposes, and research therefore serves poitica purposes. These bodies are normay, more or ess, cosey inked together, professionay and sometimes aso formay This internationa nature of science causes mutua infuence. The context therefore is both nationa and internationa. Economica forces (crises) ca for changes poiticay as we as educationay, and economy is internationa. An acceerated economica crisis may cause poitica crisis, starting a chain process (Ginsburg/Darvas 1991: p. 240). In the same way we can observe internationay, not east in Western countries, demands for changes ike privatisation, decentraisation and individua freedom; consumerism. Productivity and competitiveness is expected, even within education. This aso cas for individuaisation, resource-scrutinizing outcome evauation and quaity contro. Ecoogy-aarms ike foods and anima diseases are warning the citizens against other dept-crises that may be caused by the economica race, threatening heath and ife-quaity. Information and communication technoogies can to be used to get access to necessary knowedge to foow situations occurring reevant to understand our shrinking word. These changes themseves ca for utiisation of ICT for educationa reasons as we as organisationa and system improvements. During the ast decades there has been ongoing reforms. In OECD/CERI note from 1990, SME/ET/90.20, simiar considerations were expressed: Certainy, great dtferences remain and the trends that have been mentioned above do not have the same force everywhere, nor do they have the same feature everywhere. But they have enough common to warrant the concusions that educationa poicies and educationa reforms in the OECD Member countries are increasingy inspired by the same societa jorces. Continuing deveopment shoud primariy be based on oca proposas. Finay it can be noted, referring to OECD/note by secretariat, Denis Kaen SME/ET/90.20 (page 5, paragraph 19): The formery widey practised R-D-D (research - experimenta or piot projects, evauation - poitica decision, genera impementation) makes pace for a more fexibe strategy. A key roe in this process is assigned to a range of innovation projects with rapid andfrequentfeedback of information and experience both to the system s %ients (incudinggenerapubic) and to the responsibe poicymaking and administrative authorities. Thus, gradua improvement and gradua impementation is made possibe. The reevant projects are carried out in osmosis with the educationa and socia environment. After this statement was written the Internet has changed the rapidity of information fow dramaticay, giving educationa professionas as we as parents and students access to information about deveopments gobay The pressure on education system has risen subsequenty, exposing both poicymakers and practitioners for growing, but often incoherent, demands for deveopment and change. 9

9 THE ROLE OF /CT IN SCHOOLS 2.2. Roe of ICT in Society and Education Working with educationa poicies it is necessary to estabish a deeper understanding of ong-term impications that digitaisation may have on schoo deveopment; incuding changes of content, organisation and structure. The President of the United States of America, Cinton caimed that: The Information Age is, first and foremost, an education age, in which education must start at birth and continue throughout ifetime (EFA 2000, p 3). Simiary Prime Minister Bair campaigned with the sogans focusing on three basic areas: Education, education and education. A basic assumption is that schoo is cosey reated to its society so that major societa changes wi transform schoos and schooing. It therefore ought to be worthwhie to present some eading trends in the society of today in order to predict schoo deveopments of tomorrow. Such insights are considered to be essentia to poicymakers, in charge of poicies at any eve. Digitaisation seems to be one of the most dominant trends in our Western society aong with gobaisation. Here digitaisation, or information and communication technoogies (ICT), wi be at the forefront, but the atter not forgotten. Digitaisation and gobaisation are cosey interreated. During the years some different notions and abbreviations have been used concerning this technoogy, or may be it shoud be said technoogies in pura, since it incudes a range of different eements ranging from standard computers, robotics and to the Internet. Another deveopment has been different technoogies meting together ike TV, video and teephone that a now are integrated into the computer features. From the midde of the nineties communication became more dominant due to the commonness of Internet that enhanced the communication aspect. Latey digita technoogy has been taken into use, being a more open and incuding term. A technoogica change is not additive or subtractive, but ecoogica (Postman, 1992). Compare a miieu with and without certain insect. It wi not be the same miieu without that insect, but a totay new miieu. The same happens when a new technoogy is added to a cuture. We wi not have the same cuture pus the new technoogy, but a new cuture (ibid; 24-25). Teevision provides a technoogica exampe. Being more than a piece of furniture, or radio with picture, it atered not ony the socia ife within the homes, but society as a whoe. For instance the choir movement was 10

10 hit by the emerging teevision-cuture in the 50ies and 60ies and ots of choirs died away During the ast decade the choir cuture has experienced a reviva, but it is caimed that the meaning of or reason for singing in choir now is different. The choir movement survives by a reconstruction, making short-time projects, and shorttime obigations. Today singing in choir is considered to be a consumergood. It is a subjective choice, with sma obigations and not very ideoogica based. The post-modern choir is not first and foremost for pubic entertainment or formed to strengthen mutua vaues of a society based on soidarity. It is rather a reconstruction of a socia phenomenon fitting the individua needs of another society Innovations within technoogy were massive aso in the industria society. This may ead to the concusion that technoogy ought to have been incuded in any society-mode as a driving force. Most often this has not been done. Can. the reason be that technoogica inventions in the industria age were inear, and thus became invisibe or transparent? It coud then be suggested that digita technoogies represent a shift, a discontinuity that cas for specia attention. Today information technoogy is transforming society in such a pervasive way that it must be incuded in a society mode. ICT cause changes of organisations, infrastructures, structures of corporations and chaenges nationa poicies (Aronowitz and De Fazio, 1997). Technoogica change has become a most stabie factor. ICT has intertwined with knowedge, making it dependent upon the technoogy Through this aiance abstract knowedge has become the centre of the word s poitica economy, repacing traditiona concrete products (ibid: 194). Simiar statements coud be made on cuture and information technoogy Currenty a new economy driven by information and communication technoogy is emerging, creating new industries and recreating traditiona industries. Technoogy aso infuences the cutura scene very heaviy by the existence of sateite communication and Internet. The goba viage (McLuhan) has reached new eves of deveopment as peope across the word communicate instanty in an interactive way eiminating time and space differences. Aso schoos are using digita technoogies within the setting of the goba viage. The technoogica impications are incuded in this mode of society, used by Daun ( 1998). figure 2: A mode of society (Daun, 1998: 30) 11

11 THE ROLE OF /CT IN SCHOOLS He describes society as consisting of three anaytica spheres: the state, the civi, and the economic spheres. Most important is though that technoogy has been introduced in a prominent pace, strongy infuencing a spheres, and the goba, or word context is emphasized by being incuded in the mode. Technoogy, in this mode, is a ayer underying a spheres, constituting the environment where socia and economica action takes pace. He aso quotes Escudero: socia power is today more reated to the possession of knowedge than to the possession of the means of production (ibid: 35). Daun furthermore caims that power has become more diffuse and fuid and ess based on reations of production than it was before. Production, in this case, may be defined as materia productions not incuding virtua productions. Taking virtua production into consideration, power structures seem even more fuid. Where production is brain-based, companies are moved when the brain peope move. In strategic panning it is necessary to keep in mind these dependencies. A kinds of states in different ways use the schoo system in achieving poitica, ideoogica and economica goas. Communist regimes very ceary exerted the infuence of Marxist phiosophy on a aspects of education. In puraistic democratic societies, ideoogies are of corresponding importance, but have a different appearance. Puraistic societies have to have a more open approach in order to meet different views represented in the popuation. These ideoogies press each other and aternate in domination, causing waves and movements of change or regression. Ideoogies function as guideines for institutions, very often in the form of compromises. if compromises are notpossibe, new institutions, with new dominant ideoogies, may appear. To differentiate between nationa characteristicay incidents and a common internationa trend is difficut, as discussed above. No deveopment takes pace in a vacuum. This means that events are inked together both at a micro and macro eve. Internationa trends are transformed onto the oca eve and with oca characteristics. Changes, oca or nationa, may be imported ideas produced by internationa trends. On the other hand, it is no doubt that changes are aso caused by genuine oca ideas deveoped out of the oca economica, socia or environmenta situation. Genuine ideas aways have a oca origin, they are born somewhere, but today that somewhere may be in a virtua environment, consisting of peope from different parts of the word. Such ocaities are nowhere. In the digita society it wi be exciting to see in what way such environments can contribute to changes, fertiising the educationa soi. Economica forces and crises ca for changes poiticay as we as educationay, and economy is growing more internationa. Economica crises cause poitica chaenges, starting change processes ike decentraisation, privatisation, market-orientation and consumerism. Economy seems to be a part of a of them, causing individuaisation, demand for resources, outcome evauation and quaity contro. Loca and goba ecoogy-aarms are warning the citizens about other crises, aso caused by the economica race, threatening heath and ife-quaity. Understanding Education Different ways and methods can be used to gain understanding. A straightforward description referring to some given categories and systems is one approach that normay is very carifying. On the other hand, this method often produces a cosed understanding by reducing reaities to apprehensibe notions and objects. To define is to ki, to suggest is to create (S. Maarme quoted in Levinson 1999, p. 28). A more open approach is use of images or metaphors. A metaphor does not caim to incude a aspects of the study object, but invites to see simiarities. Gareth Morgan in his book Images of Organisation (1997) introduces metaphors as a way of understanding organisationa ife. But he aso points out that metaphors are inherenty paradoxica by creating powerfu insights and a way of not seeing at the same time (p. 5). In a reams of ife humans are occupied with their perceptions of reaity, striving to understand their word. Understanding can be seen as uncovering, decoding, or constructing reaity creation of images. Understanding thereby invoves both objective eements, perceptions, and subjective eements by creating meaning that is persona, and finay a common meaning that is shared with others constituting socia reations. Communications of meaning are important to a 12

12 Roe ef /CT In Seciety and Education understanding of socia aspects of iving and working together. Communication promotes mutua understanding, deepen and verify mutua perceptions of reaity To understand and describe an object or situation it is common to refer to other objects or situations that seem simiar in some way or the other, by comparing them. This can be done by saying that a person is strong as an ox, or perhaps that he or she is a ion, or the head of the famiy. The comparing highights simiarities, not taking into account the difference. An fruitfu approach can therefore be to aim at understanding schoos through the use of metaphors in order to read existing, underying patterns, anaysing possibe ways of getting ahead coping with new chaenges. This point of departure affects the choice of metaphors and their use. Garth Morgan emphasises that uses of different images broaden the view and deepen the insight to see, to think and act in new ways (p. 351). It is aso kept in mind that: The concept of organisations is a product of the mechanica age. Now that we are iving in an eectronic age, new organizingprincipes are necessary. The ideas presented here hep us to make the transition and meet the chaenges of this new reaity. (Morgan, 1997:p.378) This is an accurate presentation of the chaenge of schoo today that is addressed and deat with here. Use of images or metaphors may give strong interpretative direction to the meaning, and can be used intentionay or unintentionay to do so. To understand the organisation is basic in managing it, a how to manage it. The way the organisation is understood constitutes main frames for anaysing, panning and the actua day-to-day activities. Use of images does not ony support understanding but aso creates and changes. Most organisations are compex and difficut to understand or expain in an inteigibe way. Metaphors or images are therefore used to buid theories on organisations, expaining what it is a about. Theorising is aso modeing, where the making of modes often is based on images. Gareth Morgan (1997) has given an overview of commony used metaphors: Organisation as a machine, organism, brain, cuture etc. Whatever metaphor chosen it is important to be aware that it is a description, or an interpretation of the rea organisation, not representing a aspects or giving a totaity of the reaity. Another important aspect to be aware of is that by choosing a certain metaphor to mode understanding of an organisation one creates ways of not seeing as we (ibid. 5). This presents a true paradox: Understanding becomes a way of not understanding. In the foowing the images are chosen to describe some main features of schoo organisations. The different images sha iuminate different perspectives of schoos and give some historica background to recent deveopments, and future chaenges. The atter represents the underying aims of the study. According to Morgan (1997, p.376): insight to see, to think and act in new ways (p. 351). It is aso kept in mind that: in times of change it is vita to be in touch with the assumptions and theories that are guiding our practice and be abe to shape and reshape them for different ends. A main background here is therefore ooking at schoos in the eectronic age and a goba community Schoos of today are chaenged by these trends in severa ways ranging from macro to micro eve, from the state to the cassroom. The overa changes and deveopments are introducing The earning society as an image and ambiguous term, describing the chaenge, suggesting its need and potentiaity and urging on the need of it (Barnett 1996). An interesting quest may therefore be to find metaphors usefu to meet future chaenges. Bind spots created by traditiona schoo metaphors shoud be considered aong with obstaces and imitations of new ones, keeping the image of psychic prison in mind. Imaging schoo as a psychic prison impies a word ike the one presented in Pato s The Repubic where Socrates addresses the reations among appearance, reaity and knowedge (Morgan 1997, p. 215). In this shadowy word the inhabitants stick to the shadows as reaity rejecting the word outside. 13

13 Marsha McLuhan who created severa strong images ike The media is the message, The discarnate man, The goba viage, etc. a reevant in this study, aso caimed that understanding of society incudes ooking in a rearview mirror (Levinson, 1999). By this he meant that we move into the future with our sight on the past, introducing the teephone as the taking teegraph, the automobie the horseess carriage and the radio the wireess (ibid. 15). At the initia steps of deveopment of new devices the widening consequences are not understood. The understanding of the schoo of tomorrow is based on the schoo yesterday If the media are the message, we shoud ask what this means to our understanding of the traditiona schoo, and what it wi mean when introducing digita media ike Internet. What consequences or impact do these media have on schoo? Or to ask using McLuhan s tetrad, four aws of media: What does the medium enhance or ampify in the cuture? What does it obsoesce or push out of prominence? What does it retrieve from the past, from the ream of the previousy obsoesced? And finay, what does the medium reverse or fip into when it reaches the imits of its potentia? We wi now present the traditiona schoo imaged as the machine or industria metaphor. The dominating media in this schoo is probaby the book, and the teacher. 14 iizi

14 Scheo u me /ndwria/ Age 2.3. Schoo of the Industria Age A states in the word have an educationa organisation caed schoo where defined activities of teaching and earning are practised according to a certain mandate and traditions. The schoo operates within specific socia and cutura context and is constituted by certain structures and processes ead by a eadership (Tjedvo 1995). The actors within the schoo are students, teachers and eaders. Schoos beong to a arger educationa organisation, often with three different eves: the oca, regiona and nationa eve. Further, it is organised in categories according to age in preprimary, primary, secondary and tertiary education (ibid.). The different eves have a corresponding hierarchica management, from the state eve to the individua institution. Even if forma education can trace its roots more than thousand years back in history, mass schooing is a reativey modern feature, based on the invention of the printing press, emerging with the industria age. Educationa systems and schoos have had a bureaucratic design (Watson, 1994), organised ike armies or machines. Both the army and the machine image give sense when describing cassrooms, schoos and the educationa system in tota. In such an image schoos are instruments to achieve certain goas, defined from above, and managed by the educationa eadership according to given standards, prescribed by cear directives, aws and reguations. Obedience, punctuaity, orders, strict detaied rues and reguations accompanied by diverse contro mechanisms are centra in such organisations. Max Weber pointed out those bureaucracies deveoped administration processes very simiar to the machine routine production in industry. Whie a group of management theorists forwarded such bureaucratisation in their cassica management theory and scientific management, Weber was critica of such deveopments. E Tayor, the father of scientific management, stressed rationaisation of time and motion, strict contro and standardising of products. Thinking was the task of the management that shoud pan the processes of production spit into detais. Workers are not supposed to think being no more than hands (Morgan 1997, Chapter 2). Turning to industria schoos: Teachers are responsibe of panning every esson in detai, and do the thinking within her/his sphere, whie students are supposed to foow instructions. Cassrooms are organised accordingy, oriented towards the conductor, performing in front by the backboard Gii 15

15 or handing out, detaied panned tasks to be soved, normay in idea sience. In these cassrooms students aso do the same tasks and exercises simutaneousy, sometime forcing fast earners to wait whie sow earners must proceed without finishing. Such resuts can be criticised by those supporting the theory as bad panning or bad conducted essons. Learning materias are standardised. Principas and deputy schoo eaders foow simiar standardisation; panning the schoo year and the weeky timetabes, etc. Tasks of the different schoo eaders are separated and speciaised, and the reguation of responsibiity ceary defined between principas and municipa officers. The municipa officer is responsibe for the overa budget responsibiity, controing the accountancy work of the principa, carifying rues through standard etters reminding of detais to be executed at schoo eve making sure of propery order concerning schemes and the ike for municipa or state statistics. Educationa eaders at the regiona or state eve do their job in a simiar way directing the municipa education system as the municipa ofticers approach principas, making sure of equa standards nationwide by controing and carifying rues and reguations when needed. Any request at any eve must foow the ine to the nearest superior eader. If the superior is not abe to answer, the request is passed on to the top eve. The poitica organisation is paraeed to the administrative, with very itte power and responsibiity at institutiona eves, more at the municipa eve and the fina decisions to be made on aw, reguations and goas (curricuum guideines) at the nationa eve. Summing up, the machine metaphor organisation: Set goas and objectives and go for them. Organise rationay, efficienty, and ceary. Specify every detai so that everyone wi be sure of the jobs that they have to perform. Pan, organise, and contro, contro, contro (Morgan 1997, p. 26). This organisation wi run effectivey when tasks are straightforward, environment stabe, exacty the same product is supposed to be deivered over time and humans act as panned. Probems wi occur if circumstances change significanty as the organisation in such a situation may have probems in adapting and be sow in acknowedging the need to change, and if acknowedged change of aws and new reguations wi be expected, since they are not expected to think. Innovations are not supposed to occur but from the top, the organisation is not designed for individua initiatives and the was wi negect it preventing it to be institutionaised. The machine metaphor is usefu to understand the education system that has been (and sti exists), not east some strong underying structures and processes of schoos. Schoos cose to this image wi have strong eements of professionaism especiay baancing manageria aspects (Ouchi, in Sturman 1994). Bush (1995) eaborates the same point, where he refers to Hughes notion eading professiona or the professiona as administrator. There are other perspectives and understandings of schoo not duy covered by the mechanica metaphor that are better understood through other images. One is seeing the schoo as an organism; another reevant image is schoo as cuture. These terms to some degree aso present a shift of trends, and changes within the system. During the seventies and eighties ideas about the education system were ceary infuenced by images of organisations ike organisms, requesting more openness towards the oca community and parents participation. I.e. parts ofthe Norwegian curricuum guideine from 1987 (M87) were supposed to be deveoped ocay, aso giving teachers more professiona infuence. The image of schoo as a cuture aso had an infuence, focusing on teambuiding, corporate programmes, ownership and openness towards the environment. There was aso a marked shift in attention from teachers and teaching to earning and the earner, that had been on its way for some time. 16 iii%

16 Schoo In ii n/fki/ A## 2.4. Schoo in a Digita Age More basic attitudes ike earning to earn and ifeong earning are now in the forefront (i.e. Four Piars UNESCO 1999). Looking back the ast decade some cassrooms have changed substantiay, but others are ess affected, sti being quite traditiona. Emphasising project work, eectronic earning materias and Internet has gained terrain. Rapid deveopments of knowedge and easy access to updated information of a kinds are changing content and ways of earning. Some schoos produce their own CD-ROM and project presentations are to be found on Internet. In severa areas there are quite substantia variations in the earning environment and actua content taught. Variations can be encouraged, not eaving centra themes and earning methods negected. Focus shoud be on making some substantia changes, creating a new schoo, answering emerging chaenges of the eectronic society and needs of chidren, incuding socia and emotiona difficuties. A main issue shoud be to provide a the chidren with the equay high quaity of schooing and earning opportunities. Quaity issues must aways refer to the environment of use, and in a goba and digita word quaity of education therefore must be redefined in the context of utiisation. Finding substantia differences in quaity shoud be disturbing and create necessary initiatives to cope with the chaenges. This must be a main task of educationa eaders and poicymakers. Within administration substantia power has been deegated on operationa questions ike staffing, personne matters, budgetary dispositions and other administrative questions. The system being transparent ensures openness to both different eves of administration, teachers, trade unions and the pubic. Different parties need to be informed about major matters, and have their say in for them essentia questions. Crucia or principa questions wi normay need poitica decisions before fina enactment. Modem organisations work ess hierarchica and more network-based, making them fatter and more fexibe, but aso ess secure for empoyees. Focus is on teambuiding and cuture emphasising ownership of ideas and projects. Ownership and an open supportive cuture are considered basic to deveop good and effective schoos. Innovative projects are stimuated by specia resource aocations. Reevant metaphors to schoos described above are the organisation as a brain, and those of organisations as fux and transformation. Content, methods and aims of schooing are questioned. 17

17 Through autopoiesis (Morgan, chapter 8) these schoos are refecting and responding to societa deveopments and changes. Information and communication technoogies represent a new attractor chaenging book-orientation and traditiona earning and communication patterns. Management needs to emphasise, foow up and support eements ofthis new attractor to make the systems fip to new patterns (ibid. page 263). Such management shoud rather impose questions, second earning oops, than giving right answers and making detaied directives. Sma but quaitative substantia important changes are requested, pushing schoo toward the imit of chaos. The purpose is to cope with chaenges emerging in the overa society, fitting the schoo and making the schoo fit. Finay it shoud be noted that principas roe has changed during the ast twenty years, from being what we woud ca an administrator to become eaders. This means that they are supposed to have a higher persona profie, taking necessary educationa initiatives to deveop a good schoo, being accountabe of not ony economies and administrative routines but the overa pedagogica situation of the schoo. See the distinction between management and eadership eaborated in the entry of Middehurst (1993). Transitiona eadership is a term that may fit we (Bush 1995). The schoo metaphor organisation of such eaders is the one described as earning organisations, or organisations in fux and transformation. Focus on change and deveopment must ead to more reguar and scrutinising evauation and assessment of earning outcome as we as earning methods, and subsequenty of schoo organisations and systems. Additiona to interna activities externa resources shoud be incuded, aiming at processes of doube-oop earning. By this aso societa changes and aternative moves are incuded and more natura parts. Aso organisations need to come up with new strategies to earn to earn. Administrative routines need to be reduced both in numbers and in focus, ooking for new paths. On the other hand, growing externa interest and pressure reated both on individua rights and quaity of schooing aso eads to time-consuming documentation work that not aways heightens either productivity or quaity. The brain metaphor focusing on earning to earn, or doube oop earning, is reevant to schoos described above as both purpose and methods of schooing are questioned. In principes of redundancy and minimum specs can reevanty be introduced by creating the new forums for refections and discussions. Both budgetary and pedagogica debates need to be initiated in a range of forums to obtain hoistic perspectives on schooing, inking deveopment pans, organising of schoos and earning environments, organising of schoodays and groups (casses) staffing and budgetary routines. Deveopmenta diaogues need to be reguar at each schoo where the education director, headmaster, pedagogica advisors and eventua team-eaders. Simiar discussions must be hed among the entire staff of teachers, and aso organised to incude parents to increase focus, motivation, eve of participation and quaity of co-operation between schoo and homes. The purpose is to get a refective and hoistic perspective on panning activities and management, earning and ife quaity in tota. Working with metaphors to enhance understanding of our organisation, it is reevant to consider our abiity to meet the chaenges of our new, digita society. New technoogies and methods shoud not be introduced into od systems and fixed organisations, without taking advantage of new more fexibe opportunities. When examining such important issues using images of organisations it is aso reevant to ook for psychic prisons, bind spots. One coud aso ook for dos and teddy bears, objects that mediate reations to the secure word, making shift to new reaities difficut or hindered. Different objects to be suggested coud be textbooks, od administrative routines and budgetary systems. Others are traditiona, weeky subject-oriented timetabes and cassroom organisation. Different strategies to be considered can be both sma steps, reated to such teddy bears, be it textbooks, backboards or timetabes (etc.), as we as arger eaps making substantia and arge changes revoting ways of organising schoos and casses, repacing cass-structure, textbooks, backboards with project-groups, information-rich environments incuding Internet and the entire oca and goba environment. Other changes to consider are those of tests and exams that no doubt woud benefit from being made more reevant 18

18 Schoo in a Difta Afe to daiy ife of schoos and society. Such changes require creativity, wisdom and courage, but seem inevitabe to correspond to the society of today. The ast decades there has been a considerabe growth of schooing expressing an increasing roe of education in modern societies. Poitica forces have stressed education systems a over the word not east in Western countries. Educationa changes have been subscribed in US, Britain (David, ibid. 219). Simiar changes are found esewhere. Economic stagnation and decine have been put forward as reasons for need for change. The economica probems have caused cosing of factories and mass-unempoyment. New technoogies, particuary information technoogy, have contributed to the increasing unempoyment as we. On the other hand thousands of new jobs have emerged rapidy a over the word. This new ICT-job market did not exist ony a few years ago. In this perspective information technoogy is of growing importance in modernisation of education, to serve society needs. A technoogica change is, according to N. Postman (1996), a Faustian bargain, where to every new advantage a new technoogy offers there is aways a corresponding disadvantage. The questions that need cose examinations by educationaists are what these disadvantages are and how to eiminate or reduce them. Or to put it differenty: whom the new technoogies benefit and who is harmed. Another important observation made by Postman (ibid.) is that technoogica changes are not additive but ecoogica, meaning they are causing overa changes, fighting the od technoogies. Digita technoogies are chaenging traditiona ways of working and organising schoos, and not east the word of books, new papers, etc. Books wi survive but their dominance is chaenged. The ecturing of teachers is simiary chaenged. These are the perspectives that need to be addressed to the teacher education of today aong with traditiona earning theories based on use of traditiona earning materia. In a rapidy changing word overoaded with signs, objects and cutura artefacts constanty transforming and recasting of meaning, a different set of competence is needed. When order is not a structure but a structure of fows (Lash and Urry, 1994: 4), new images must be utiised to understand society. Refexivity, or aesthetic refexivity, is introduced as a term to expain or iuminate a centra feature of humans in the post-modern society. Refexivity refers the abiity of being aware of ones own sef and the reation to the sef and society. Aesthetic refexivity incudes an ecoogica awareness, a sef that at the same time is a being-in-the-word (ibid: 6), both subject to, and subject of the economy of space, and critica and refexivey aware of that. In this society design has increased vaue, which is another aspect of aesthetics. Appied refexive aesthetics aso introduces invented communities, ike ecoogica movements, etc. as we as virtua societies, iving their ives within eectronic networks. In societies of the new economy and cuture understanding or anaysis based on objective, reguated structures may prove too imited and even unfeasibe. To approach schooing of today on concepts of the functiona paradigm aone may turn out to be confusing and unsuitabe. This means that poicymakers and others need to refect upon some different notions and concepts than those rooted in organisation theories and functionaism. To suggest use of or shift to new paradigms is contradictory to the idea of paradigms. Each paradigm represents defined, basic met-theoretica assumptions constituting a modus operandi for the theorist (Burre and Morgan, 1989: 23). Basic, taken for granted assumptions are not easiy eft behind. It is more than changing perspectives. Paradigms represent totay different both vaues and perspectives. And within each paradigm there are arge variations as we. To change perspective within the same paradigm may be more common. Interparadigmatic journeys are rare (Burre and Morgan 1989: 23), but Marx and Siverman are mentioned to have shifted paradigms. The first changed from radica humanism to radica structuraism and the atter from the functionaist to the interpretive paradigm. The idea is therefore to end ear to different paradigmatic theories and perspectives being introduced. The perspectives presented above must affect aims and programs for schoos, and consequenty teacher competencies needed. The way digita technoogies intertwine a parts of society and 19

19 THE ROLE OF ICT II! SWOOLS working-ife makes ICT a centra part of education, and teacher training. The aims and vaues of the industria schoo (see above) and a paradigm based on functiona socioogy are outdated. The question is what competences need to be added and what eements are acking or are underestimated in the functionaist paradigm? Aong with gobaisation and digitaisation the pace of change and range of mobiity has speeded up drasticay Information technoogies that in a pervasive way turn our society into digita societies de-stabiise both organisations and states and make change or fux norma. Od patterns and methods of contro do not work effectivey, and are far from sufficient. Knowedge has got a predominant pace eaving individuas ess dependent on singe organisations, schoos. On the other hand, they wi be even more dependent on skis and competencies provided by schoos. Giving focus to subjects and change moves the most feasibe modes of socioogica anayses from the functiona to the radica humanist paradigm. But, even if such new perspectives may be given consideration and are usefu for refection, it must be underined that this is a conditiona approach reying on some given foci, namey, some specific fieds of deveopment that is rapidy changing. The revoutionary changes certainy deconstruct and empty some we-defined structures, concepts and objects. But reconstruction is aso a continuing, ongoing process. Organisations that are reorganised after a deconstruction can evove new stabiising patterns of order and reguation with a new, reconstructed meaning that works within a functiona socioogy and paradigm. In a rapidy changing society ony organisations abe to deconstmct and reconstruct can survive, that is earning organisations. Education, and schoos, for certain wi be abe to reconstruct and fi its necessary pace within the digita society, but to do so new competences have to find its pace in the core of teacher training. And this is what wi be expored and discussed beow. To give a too for anaysis and discussions of ICT competences needed, a matrix of content, skis at different eves is introduced. This matrix does not caim to define the eementary ICT teacher training programme to be used ike a cooking recipe, but rather a too for exporation and anaysis, reated to oca conditions and current technoogica deveopments. Society and chidren s need as we as pedagogy is to be the frame of reference, rather than technoogy itsef. References: Aronowitz, S. and De Fazio, W. (1997) The New Knowedge Work. In Hasey, A. H, Lauder, H, Brown, P. and Stuart Wes, A. (Eds. 1997) Education, Cuture, Economy, and Society, New York: Oxford University Press. Bamett, R. (1996) Chapter 5. In The Limits of Competence, Knowedge, Higher Education and Society. Buckingham: SRHE and Open University Press. Burre, G. and Morgan G. (1989) Socioogica Paradigms and Organisationa Anaysis (First pubished 1979). Hants: Gower Pubishing Company. Bush, T. (1995) Theories of Educationa Management. London: Pau Chapman Pubishing Ltd. Daun, H. (1998) Conceptua Framework Nationa Society and the Gobe. In Daun, Hoger & Benincasa, Luciana (Eds. 1998) Restructuring Education in Europe. Four Country studies. Stockhom: Reports from the Institute of Internationa Education, Stockhom University. David, Miriam (1992) Education Reform in Britain and the United States. In Arnove R. F, Atbach P. G. and Key G.? (Eds. 1992) Emergent Issues in Education - Comparative Perspectives. New York: State University of New York Press EFA 2000 (Education for A) Cover story: Learning without imits. Paris: UNESCO Fagerind, I. and Saha, L. J. (1989) Education & Nationa Deveopment. A Comparative Perspective. Zd Edition (First edition 1983). Oxford: Pergamon Press. 28

20 Schoo In a #gita A## Heesnes, Jon (1988) Hermeneutikk og kutur, Fiosofiske stubbar. (Hermeneutics and Cuture, Phiosophica Short Stories). Oso: Det Norske Samaget. Kud (Kirke- og undervisningsdepartementet) (1987) Mansterpan for den 94rzge grunnskoen (Curricuum Guideines for 9-Years Compusory Schoo). Oso: Kirke- og undervisningsdepartementet. Lash, S. and Urry, J. (1994) Economics of Signs & Space. London, Thousands Oaks, New Dehi: Sage Pubications. Levinson, F? (1999) Digita McLuhan: a guide to the information miennium. London, New York: Routedge. Massiaas, Byron G. (1977) Education and Poitica Deveopment. In Comparative Education Review Middehurst, R. (1993) Chapter 1. In Leading Academics. Buckingham: SRHE and Open University Press. Morgan, G. (1997) Images of Organisation, Thousand Oaks, London, New Dehi: SAGE Pubications, Postman, Nei (1992) Teknopois (Technopoy). Gjovik: Bokkubben Nye Baker. Postman, Nei (1996) The End of Education: Vintage books. Redefining the Vaue of Schoo. New York: Sturman, A. (1994) Loose Couping and Educationa Systems. In T HusCn, N. Postethwaite (Eds.) Internationa Encycopedia of Education. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Tjedvo, A. (1995) A anguage of Education as a Subject. In H. Daun, M. O Dowd, S. Zhao (Eds.) The roe of Education in Deveopment. From Persona to Internationa Arenas. Stockhom: HE, Stockhom University UNESCO (1996) Learning: The Treasure Whin. Paris: UNESCO Pubishing. Watson, J.K.P. (1994) Schoo Administration, History of. In T HusCn, N. Postethwaite (Eds.) Internationa Encycopedia of Education. Oxford: Pergamon Press.