Thinking and feeling on the World Wide Web: the impact of product type and time on World Wide Web advertising effectiveness

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1 JOURNAL OF MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS (2002) Thinking and feeling on the World Wide Web: the impact of product type and time on World Wide Web advertising effectiveness MICAEL DAHLÉN Center for Consumer Marketing, Stockholm School of Economics, PO Box 6501, S Stockholm, Sweden This article focuses on the effectiveness of banner advertisements. Drawing from theory on functional versus expressive products and wear in versus wear out it argues that product type and time are important factors in World Wide Web (WWW) advertising. The results from a large empirical study are reported and show that responses to banner advertisements differ between functional and expressive products and over time. Functional product banner advertisements have higher initial click-throughs that quickly deteriorate and they have no effect through advertisement impressions. Expressive products need time to wear in as both click-through rates and positive brand attitudes from advertisement impressions increase with repeated exposures. These differences in consumer response are conceptualized as thinking and feeling on the WWW, thereby providing important implications for advertisers. KEYWORDS: Advertising; Internet; World Wide Web; consumer behaviour INTRODUCTION World Wide Web (WWW) advertising has grown explosively in the last few years, but it is still a new phenomenon in both research and practice. This is evident when the unclear understanding of WWW advertising effectiveness is considered. The predominant form of WWW advertising is banner advertisements (Interactive Advertising Bureau, 2001). Some authors have contended that banner advertisements are ineffective (cf. Hoffman and Novak, 2000), whereas others have suggested that they are indeed effective (cf. Briggs and Hollis, 1997). There are opposing views emphasizing click-through (i.e. clicking on the advertisement to be transported to the target WWW site) as the primary goal for banner advertisements (cf. Doyle et al., 1997; Chatterjee et al., 1998) and advertisement impressions as the primary goal for the banners (cf. Briggs and Hollis, 1997; Dahlén et al., 2000b). The differences call for more research. The idea of ineffective banner advertisements is based on the fact that click-through rates are continuously decreasing (Hoffman and Novak, 2000). In 1996 click-through rates were approximately 2.5% (Doubleclick, 1996), whereas today the rates are below 1% (Nielsen NetRatings, 2001). The opposing view, suggesting that banner advertisements are indeed effective, is based on the fact that banner advertisements may work as advertisements in their own right through advertisement impressions (Briggs and Hollis, 1997). This reduces the problem of decreasing Journal of Marketing Communications ISSN print/issn online 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd DOI: /

2 116 DAHLÉN click-through rates. However, more recent research has indicated that the effects of banner advertisement impressions may be small (Dahlén, 2001). Does this mean that WWW advertising actually is ineffective? Is the question solved? The answer to both questions is no. This article will show that evaluations of WWW advertising effectiveness need to be re ned and, in doing so, it will prove that WWW advertising works. However, it works differently for different products and over time. The research on WWW advertising effectiveness to date has focused on the click-through rates and communication effects of banner advertisements without regard for the product (Briggs, 1996, 1997; Doubleclick, 1996; Briggs and Hollis, 1997; Chatterjee et al., 1998; Hofacker and Murphy, 1998). However, traditional marketing communications research tells us that different modes of communication are suited for different products, for example expressive and functional products (cf. Vaughn, 1980, 1986; Rossiter and Percy, 1992, 1997). Consumer responses to advertising have been evidenced to differ between expressive and functional products (cf. Mittal, 1989). The research to date has also taken a static view of banner advertisements. With the exception of Doubleclick (1996), which reported diminishing click-through rates and Chatterjee et al. (1998), who reported a U-shaped click-through rate with multiple impressions, little research has been done on banner advertisements in a dynamic context. However, traditional marketing communications research has shown that advertisements work differently over time, that is they wear in and they wear out (cf. Krugman, 1972; Ephron, 1995; Naples, 1997; Tellis, 1997). This article investigates the effectiveness of banner advertisements for functional and expressive products. Both click-through rates and advertisement impressions are considered. Furthermore, their effectiveness is assessed over time with repeated exposures. Data from a large empirical study is used. The ndings are conceptualized as thinking and feeling on the WWW and provide important implications for advertisers. Next, the paper reviews previous research indicating that product type and time (repetition) are important factors to consider in WWW advertising. Thereafter, the paper looks into theory on functional and expressive products and develops hypotheses that are tested empirically. THE IMPACT OF PRODUCT TYPE AND TIME ON WORLD WIDE WEB ADVERTISING: PREVIOUS RESEARCH Recent research has shown that banner advertisement and WWW site performances are affected by product type. Dahlén and Bergendahl (2001) showed that the click-through rates for functional products were twice as high as banner advertisements for expressive products. Furthermore, visitors to expressive product WWW sites were found to be signi cantly more positive towards and greater users of the brand than non-visitors. No such differences were found for functional products. Research has also shown that banner advertisements work differently over time with repeated exposures. An early study showed that banner advertisements wear out quickly in terms of click-through, so called banner burn-out with very diminished click rates (Doubleclick, 1996). These results were contradicted by Chatterjee et al. (1998) who observed that the click-through rate followed a U-shaped pattern, thus increasing again with time. Dahlén (2001) showed that banner advertisements both wear out (tedium) and wear in (habituation) by applying theory on habituation and tedium. Familiar brands exhibited high initial clickthrough rates, which deteriorated quickly with repeated exposures. Unfamiliar brands followed the opposite pattern, with increasing click-through. Moreover, the effects of banner advertisement impressions (measured as a change in brand attitude) varied with repetition. Familiar brand banner

3 IMPACTS ON WWW ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS 117 advertisements exhibited a negative relation between repeated exposures and communication effects, whereas unfamiliar brand banner advertisements followed a U-shaped pattern. The reported studies indicate that there are important lessons to be learned from investigating WWW advertising from a product type and time perspective. Functional and expressive products have been shown to differ in their WWW advertising performance. Multiple exposures have also been shown to yield different results. However, the intersection between these two dimensions, namely functional versus expressive products and number of exposures, has not been researched. This is the aim of this article, which will study how WWW advertising for functional and expressive products performs in the short run and the long run. FUNCTIONAL AND EXPRESSIVE PRODUCTS AND ADVERTISING RESPONSE: DEVELOPMENT OF HYPOTHESES Products can generally be categorized as either functional or expressive based on the motives that consumers have for buying and consuming them. Functional products are subject to cognitive motives whereas affective motives characterize expressive products (Ratchford, 1987). These differences manifest themselves in the ways consumers relate to the two product types, that is how they seek and evaluate information and respond to advertising. The inherent product features are important for functional products (Mittal, 1989). The purchase decision is mainly logical and objective and is based on functional facts (Vaughn, 1980, 1986; Ratchford, 1987). Underlying the decision process is a strong utilitarian need and the product choice is subject to consequent cognitive evaluation (Ratchford, 1987). Vaughn (1980, 1986) called these products think products, concluding that product choice is characterized by thinking. This thinking can be thought of as problem solving (Fennell, 1978; Rossiter and Percy, 1992), where consumers use rational decision criteria for selecting the product that best solves the problem at hand (Ratchford, 1987). The process is driven by negative purchase motivations (Rossiter and Percy, 1987, 1991). If functional products are characterized by thinking, expressive products instead lend themselves more to feeling (Vaughn, 1980, 1986). The affective motives behind these products include ego grati cation, social acceptance and sensory stimulation (cf. McGuire, 1976; Fennell, 1978). The customer may care a lot about the product but still manifests little cognitive activity (Mittal, 1989). Holbrook and Hirschman (1982) contended that the psychosocial interpretation of expressive products is largely idiosyncratic and less susceptible to explicit information search. Expressive products do not lend themselves easily to content or feature discriminations (Mittal, 1989). In an empirical study Mittal (1989) found that consumers use more sources of information for functional products than for expressive products. Furthermore, brand comparisons are more extensive and more brand features are examined for functional products. Consumers thus seem more inclined to search for and process information for functional products, whereas there is less initiative when it comes to expressive products. Clicking on a banner advertisement on the Internet means that the consumer wants to be transported to the target advertisement and actively seek out information. Given that functional products are subject to more search and cognitive efforts, it would be expected that more Internet users will click on banner advertisements and be transported to target advertisements for these products than for expressive products. This was also con rmed empirically by Dahlén and Bergendahl (2001). Functional products are subject to a fairly rational purchase process, where consumers are motivated and are capable of searching for and evaluating information (Vaughn, 1980, 1986; Ratchford, 1987; Rossiter and Percy, 1992, 1997). This means that consumers should form an

4 118 DAHLÉN opinion rather quickly about whether the brand is interesting or not. The key to functional product advertising is to obtain an immediate response (cf. Belch, 1982; Rossiter and Percy, 1992, 1997). As the information search is undertaken prior to purchase (which was found in Dahlén and Bergendahl (2001)), consumers should react to WWW advertising immediately or discard it and probably not react later (because another solution to the problem was found). For expressive products it is the other way around. The information search does not necessarily take place before purchase (cf. Ehrenberg, 1974; Rossiter and Percy, 1992; Dahlén and Bergendahl, 2000) and repeated advertising may serve as a build-up, generating a later response (Rossiter and Percy, 1991, 1997). Therefore, click-through rates are expected to decrease for functional products with repeated exposures and to increase for expressive products with repeated exposures. H 1 : Click-through rates decrease with repeated banner advertisement exposures for functional products. H 2 : Click-through rates increase with repeated banner advertisement exposures for expressive products. Banner advertisements may work as advertisements in their own right, producing communication effects through advertisement impressions (Briggs and Hollis, 1997; Dahlén, 2001; Dahlén and Bergendahl, 2001). However, the conditions differ between functional and expressive products. In order for functional product advertising to be effective the advertisement should evoke a dynamic sequence of negative to neutral emotions (Rossiter and Percy, 1991), whereas for expressive products positive emotions should be evoked (Rossiter and Percy, 1991). As the advertisements for functional products cater to negative purchase motivations and are mainly interesting when the consumer is in the market for the product (Belch, 1982; Rossiter and Percy, 1992, 1997; Dahlén and Bergendahl, 2001), repeated exposures should quickly lead to tedium (Sawyer, 1981; Tellis, 1997). Banner advertisements should thus wear out with repeated exposures. However, psychological interpretations and recognition of the product are important for expressive products (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982; Mittal, 1989). Brand preferences can thus be developed by day-to-day exposure and habituation to brand communication (Mittal, 1989; Tellis, 1997). Banner advertisements should thus wear in with repeated exposures. Increased brand attitude is a universal communication goal (Rossiter et al., 1991; Rossiter and Percy, 1997) and, thus, a good measure for comparisons of communication effects. This leads us to the following hypotheses. H 3 : Brand attitude does not increase (or might even decrease) with repeated banner advertisement exposures for functional products. H 4 : Brand attitude increases with repeated banner advertisement exposures for expressive products. METHOD In order to test the above hypotheses how many times Internet users have been exposed to certain banner advertisements needs to be measured and these advertisement impressions on an individual level then need to be connected with click-through behaviours and the Internet users levels of brand attitude. This way the effects of banner advertisement impressions on click-through and communication effects can be measured. Furthermore, banner advertisements for functional products and expressive products are needed, respectively, in order to make comparisons between the two product types. Laboratory experiments are less suited for this purpose as the aim of the research was to measure Internet users actual behaviours (cf. Burke et al., 1992; Campo et al., 1999). In the design used here,

5 IMPACTS ON WWW ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS 119 Internet users click-through behaviours in response to a selection of banner advertisements for functional and expressive products were unobtrusively observed. Afterwards, the Internet users were surveyed and their responses on an individual user level were matched with the banner advertisement impressions and click-through behaviours. The design The study design was based on the design reported in Briggs and Hollis (1997). Banner advertisements for both expressive and functional products were placed in available advertising spaces on Sweden s most visited WWW site, the Passagen portal. The design is illustrated in Fig. 1. The banner advertisements were exposed during a period of 1 week. Upon entering the site, randomly selected visitors were intercepted by a pop-up dialogue box asking for their participation in a study about marketing on the Internet. If the visitor accepted the invitation, she/he typed his or her address and sent their reply to a database. Those who did not consent answered no and were not asked again. Systematic sampling without replacement was employed, meaning that the same visitor could not be selected more than once (Newbold, 1991; Malhotra, 1993). This was achieved by using the nth visitor intercept method with cookie les registering each visitor. As the visitor sent his or her consent to the database, a cookie le was placed in the visitor s WWW browser. The cookie le contained information about exposures to banner advertisements, whether the visitor clicked on a banner advertisement and the visitor s address. This was done in order to be able to match the respondent s answers in the following questionnaire with the respondent s behaviour. Six days after the banners were rst exposed on the WWW site, an was sent to the visitor containing the address and hyperlink to a WWW questionnaire. The information in the previously stored cookie le was sent along with the respondent s answers to a database. FIGURE 1. The study design.

6 120 DAHLÉN The banner advertisements Seven banner advertisements were carefully chosen for the study. Three were classi ed as functional products and four were classi ed as expressive products. The classi cation was based on the responses from a control group sample of 40 business students. Each product was rated on the think feel scale developed and validated by Ratchford (1987). The scale is described in more detail in the measures section. Products with low mean scores (below the middle value of the scale) were classi ed as expressive products, whereas those with high mean scores (above the middle value of the scale) were classi ed as functional products. The resulting classi cation of banner advertisements was as follows. (1) Expressive products: Atlas (vacations/holidays), Zoo Village (clothing), Sia (ice cream) and Zoegas (coffee). (2) Functional products: Skandia (insurance company), EU-bildelar (automobile parts) and Via (detergent). The banner advertisements were designed so that creative differences would not confound the results. For example, they did not include non-product-related appeals (such as competitions, etc.). A manipulation check was conducted in order to ascertain that the advertising copy quality did not interfere with the results. A control group sample of 48 business students rated the copy of each of the banner advertisements (brand names were removed) on the ve-point likability scale reported in Haley and Baldinger (1991). This measure is often cited as the best discriminator between more and less effective advertisements (cf. Brown and Stayman, 1992). The mean values were 2.63 for expressive product advertisement copy texts and 2.57 for functional product advertisement copy texts, indicating that there were no signi cant differences (p > 0.7) between the advertisements. The sample The response rate in the rst recruitment step was 29% and in the second step 75% completed the questionnaire. This can be compared to the 38% rst-step and 61% second-step response rates reported in Briggs and Hollis (1997). The demographic and Internet usage pro les of the sample closely resembled the pro les of the WWW site visitor population (see Table 1). Due to problems of reading cookie les from some respondents, a number of responses were disregarded. There are inherent problems with WWW browser-based sampling, for example an individual may use several WWW browsers or a WWW browser may not accept cookie les (for a review see Dahlén, 1998). A total of responses were collected together with information on the respondents behaviours. The demographic and Internet usage pro les of the sample closely resembled the pro les of the WWW site visitor population. Measures Ratchford s (1987) think feel scale was used for classi cation of the banner advertisements into functional and expressive products. It consists of ve items rated on a seven-point semantic differential. Two items measure the degree of think (functional): these are (purchase) decision is not mainly logical or objective/(purchase) decision is mainly logical or objective and (purchase) decision is based mainly on functional facts/(purchase) decision is not based mainly on functional facts. The remaining three items measure the degree of feel : these are (purchase) decision expresses one s personality/(purchase) decision does not express one s personality,

7 IMPACTS ON WWW ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS 121 TABLE 1. Sample and population pro les Sample Population Mean weekly Internet usage 104 min 100 min Gender: male/female 61/39 59/41 Mean age 29.5 years 30.0 years (purchase) decision is based on a lot of feeling/(purchase) decision is based on little feeling and (purchase) decision is based on looks, taste, touch, smell or sound/(purchase) decision is not based on looks, taste, touch, smell or sound. Mean scores were calculated for each product (Cronbach s a > 0.7). Brand attitude was measured with the question What do you think about brand compared to other brands in the same product category?, which was answered on a seven-point scale (1 = brand is the best brand in the category and 7 = brand is the worst brand in the category). The speci c brand and product category for each product were substituted in the questions. The measure was based on the recommendations of Gardner (1985) and Rossiter and Percy (1992) and corresponds closely with other measures of brand attitude (cf. Dahlén et al., 2000a). RESULTS Cross-tabulations were conducted in order to test hypotheses H 1 and H 2. The click-through rates for functional and expressive products were compared between different numbers of exposures, ranging from one exposure to ve or more exposures. The results are shown in Table 2. Functional products exhibited a signi cant decrease in click-through, with an initial rate of 0.9% and a mere 0.2% at ve or more exposures. The opposite pattern was found for expressive products. The click-through rate increased from an initial rate of 0.1% to a nal rate of 0.7%. At one and two exposures functional products performed better than expressive products (p < 0.01). At three exposures there was no signi cant difference between the products, whereafter expressive products yielded higher click-through rates (p < 0.01). Hypotheses H 1 and H 2, i.e. click-through rates decrease with repeated banner advertisement exposures for functional products and click-through rates increase with repeated banner advertisement exposures for expressive products, are thus supported. In order to investigate the impact of banner advertisement impressions (hypotheses H 3 and H 4 ) differences in brand attitude were computed between consumers that had not been exposed to the banner advertisements and consumers that had been exposed to the banner advertisements for one, two, three, four and ve or more times. The results are shown in Table 3. No signi cant differences were found for functional products between exposed and non-exposed consumers. The banner advertisement impressions for these products regardless of number did not have an effect on brand attitude. Initially there seemed to be no effect for expressive products. The differences in brand attitude were not signi cant between non-exposed consumers and consumers exposed one or two times. However, from three exposures onwards there was a clear increase (p < 0.01) in brand attitude compared to non-exposed consumers. Thus, there was an increase in brand attitude with repeated exposures for expressive products. Hypotheses H 3 and H 4, i.e. brand attitude does not increase (there is no effect at all) with repeated banner advertisement exposures for functional products and brand attitude increases with repeated banner advertisement exposures for expressive products, are supported.

8 122 DAHLÉN TA BLE 2. Click-through rates for functional and expressive products and different numbers of exposures Number of exposures Total Functional products 0.5% 0.9% 0.9% 0.4% 0.4% 0.2% Expressive products 0.2% 0.1% 0.2% 0.5% 0.6% 0.7% For functional products p < 0.01 and n = and for expressive products p < 0.01 and n = TA BLE 3. Brand attitude changes with repeated exposures (all differences are compared to non-exposed respondents) Number of exposures Functional products n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. Expressive products n.s. n.s. 4.2% 9.0% 15.8% For functional products n = 7406 and for expressive products n = 7584 and p < n.s. = not signi cant. IMPLICATIONS The present study shows that there are important differences in WWW advertising effectiveness between functional and expressive products over time. Functional products yield rather high initial click-through rates. However, these deteriorate quickly with repeated exposures, suggesting that banner advertisements wear out fast. The opposite is true for expressive products. Starting at a very low click-through rate banner advertisements wear in with repeated exposures and surpass functional product banner advertisements at four or more exposures. Banner advertisement impressions do not seem to have an effect for functional products, whereas multiple impressions are desired for expressive products as these produce increasingly positive brand attitudes. The consumer response to WWW advertising for functional products can be characterized as think processes. Banner advertisements for these products face active, information-seeking consumers. The initial click-through rates are high as consumers immediately scan the advertisement and click on it if it is of interest. If the banner advertisement is not interesting it is discarded just as quickly. This immediate scanning could help in explaining why banner advertisement impressions do not have an effect on brand attitude. The products are subject to rational search, where consumers do not process advertisements longer than necessary, as the advertisements in themselves produce no value. This may be emphasized in an active and information-rich medium such as the WWW (cf. Dahlén et al., 2000a; Dahlén and Bergendahl, 2001). Furthermore, the banner advertisement format may be too simple to be effective for products with negative purchase motives (cf. Rossiter and Percy, 1991). Consumers think processes on the WWW are characterized by a quick scanning of advertisements with immediate reactions (interest/no interest), leading either directly to WWW site visits or to no visits at all. Consumers visiting the WWW sites for functional products are not more positively disposed to or greater users of the brands (Dahlén and Bergendahl, 2001), thereby suggesting that visits are made pre-purchase.

9 IMPACTS ON WWW ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS 123 The consumer response to WWW advertising for expressive products can be characterized as feel processes. Banner advertisements for these products face consumers that are fairly passive and who are not actively seeking out information. The banner advertisements need time to wear in. This depends on the fact that consumers do not feel the need to learn more about the product directly. However, repeated exposure to the advertisements, evoking positive emotions (Rossiter and Percy, 1991), may enhance the consumers liking of the brands (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982; Mittal, 1989). The present study shows that repeated advertisement impressions lead to a more positive brand attitude. Instead of immediately reacting to or discarding the advertisements, feeling consumers become more and more susceptible to the advertisements, leading to enhanced brand attitude and increasing click-through rates. Visitors to expressive product WWW sites are more positively disposed to the brands than non-visitors (Dahlén and Bergendahl, 2001). Furthermore, the visitors have also been found to be greater users of the brand, implying that visits to a greater extent are made post-purchase. This could mean that banner advertisements through mere repetition evoke a positive feeling towards the brand, leading eventually to a WWW site visit. At the same time, banner advertisements attract already won consumers who simply like to engage in communication with the product post-purchase (cf. Ehrenberg, 1974). Think and feel processes put different demands on advertising. For functional products, which adhere to think processes, click-through is the goal for banner advertisements. Consumers want more information and banner advertisements should thus work as transporters to the target WWW sites. In order to achieve the highest possible click-through rates advertisement placement becomes crucial (cf. Dahlén et al., 2000a,b). The advertisements should be placed when and where there is maximum likelihood that the consumers are looking for these kinds of products. Multiple exposures should be avoided as they are a waste of resources. Advertisers want to cater to the consumers feel processes for expressive products. Placement is less important, as click-through and transportation to target WWW sites is not the primary goal. Instead, banner advertisements should strive for maximum visibility. Therefore, reach and frequency are of greater interest (Dahlén et al., 2000b). Placing advertisements at multiple locations enhances reach (the target audience is not as quali ed as for functional products, as they are not engaged in pre-purchase activities) and may also help to achieve a higher frequency as consumers move about on the WWW. By loosening the constraints set by click-through goals, the banner advertisements can instead focus on eliciting feeling, making the advertisements even more effective in the long run. There are important lessons to be learned from this research. First, all products can not be treated as being equal. The question of whether WWW advertising is effective and how depends on the level of analysis. Breaking it down into functional and expressive products, it is seen that banner advertisements and WWW sites play different roles. Moreover, it is found that there is also a short run and a long run. Banner advertisements for functional products work better in the short run and banner advertisements for expressive products work better in the long run. It is shown that advertisers need to work either with click-through as a goal or with advertisement impressions as a goal, depending on the product type. As a result of relieving advertisers from the pressure of working with the dual goals of clickthrough and advertisement impressions, banner advertisements and other outside-of-the-own- WWW site advertisement formats can be enhanced. Advertisements with a focus on click-through can be more narrowly targeted and more focused on obtaining responses. Advertisements with impressions in focus can enhance the communication of positive emotions in a more free format.

10 124 DAHLÉN FURTHER RESEARCH The present research has focused on the effects of banner advertising. The literature in this eld is growing with a focus on communication effects. The literature on WWW sites to date is greater, but focus on communication effects is still scarce. Studies similar to banner advertisement research need to be conducted, where the actual effects on brand attitude and other related measures are investigated instead of, for example, the frequency and duration of visits. The research on attitude towards the site measures (cf. Chen and Wells, 1999; Bruner and Kumar, 2000; Stevenson et al., 2000) needs to be advanced with more brand-related measures. Furthermore, as banner advertisements and target WWW sites are complementary advertisements, research embracing and connecting both formats is needed. A rst step, taking the present study s results into consideration, is to nd comparable measures for banner advertisement and WWW site advertising effectiveness. For example, the attitude towards the site measure could be applied to banner advertisements (attitude towards the banner) as well. REFERENCES Belch, G.E. (1982) The effect of television commercial repetition on cognitive response and message acceptance. Journal of Consumer Research 9(1), 56 65, Briggs, R. (1996) HotWired Advertising Effectiveness Study, Briggs, R. (1997) IAB Online Advertising Effectiveness Study. Briggs, R. and Hollis, N. (1997) Advertising on the web: is there response before click-through? Journal of Advertising Research 37(2), Brown, S.P. and Stayman, D.M. (1992) Antecedents and consequences of attitude toward the ad: a meta-analysis. Journal of Consumer Research 19(1), Bruner II, G.C. and Kumar, A. (2000) Web commercials and advertising hierarchy-of-effects. Journal of Advertising Research 40(1/2), Burke, R.R., Harlam, B.A. and Kahn, B.A. (1992) Comparing dynamic consumer choice in real and computer-simulated environments. Journal of Consumer Research 19(1), Campo, K., Gijsbrechts, E. and Guerra, F. (1999) Computer simulated shopping experiments for analyzing dynamic purchasing patterns: validation and guidelines. Journal of Empirical Generalizations in Marketing Science 4, Chatterjee, P., Hoffman, D.L. and Novak, T.P. (1998) Modeling the Clickstream: Implications for Web-based Advertising Efforts. Project 2000 Vanderbilt Working Paper, papers/html/manuscripts/clickstream/clickstream. html Chen, Q. and Wells, W.D. (1999) Attitude toward the site. Journal of Advertising Research 39(5), Dahlén, M. (1998) Controlling the uncontrollable. Towards the perfect web sample. In Proceedings from the Worldwide Internet Seminar, Amsterdam: ESOMAR Publications Series Vol. 220, pp Dahlén, M. (2001) Banner ads through a new lens. Journal of Advertising Research 41(4), Dahlén, M. and Bergendahl, J. (2001) Informing and transforming on the web: an empirical study of response to banner ads for functional and expressive products. International Journal of Advertising 20(2), Dahlén, M., Mörner, N. and Ekborn, Y. (2000a) Effective Advertising on the Internet. The Effects of Banner Ads and Clickthrough. CCM Working Paper No. 22, Stockholm School of Economics. Dahlén, M., Ekborn, Y. and Mörner, N. (2000b) To click or not to click: an empirical study of response to banner ads for high and low involvement products. Consumption, Markets & Culture 4(1), Doubleclick (1996) Research Findings: Banner Burnout, Doyle, B., Modahl, M.A. and Abbott, B. (1997) What advertising works. The Forrester Report 1(7). Ehrenberg, A. (1997) Repetitive advertising and the consumer. Journal of Advertising Research 17(2), Ephron, E. (1995) More weeks, less weight: the shelf-space model of advertising. Journal of Advertising Research 35(3),

11 IMPACTS ON WWW ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS 125 Fennell, G. (1978) Consumers perceptions of the product-use situation. Journal of Marketing 42(2), Gardner, M.P. (1985) Does attitude toward the advertisement affect brand attitude under a brand evaluation set? Journal of Marketing Research 22(2), Haley, R.I. and Baldinger, A.L. (1991) The ARF Copy Research Validity Project. Journal of Advertising Research 31(2), Hofacker, C.F. and Murphy, J. (1998) World Wide Web banner advertisement copy testing. European Journal of Marketing 32(7/8), Hoffman, D.L. and Novak, T.P. (2000) How to acquire customers on the web. Harvard Business Review 78(3), Holbrook, M.B. and Hirschman, E.C. (1982) The experiential aspects of consumption: consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun. Journal of Consumer Research 9(3), IAB (2001) Advertisement Revenue Report 2000, Krugman, H.E. (1972) Why three exposures may be enough. Journal of Advertising Research 12(6), McGuire, W.J. (1976) Some internal psychological factors in uencing consumer choice. Journal of Consumer Research 2(4), Malhotra, N.K. (1993) Marketing Research. Englewood-Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. Mittal, B. (1989) Must consumer involvement always imply more information search? Advances in Consumer Research 16, Naples, M.J. (1997) Effective frequency: then and now. Journal of Advertising Research 37(4), Newbold, P. (1991) Statistics for Business and Economics. Englewood-Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. Nielsen NetRatings (2001) European Net Audience Still Growing, Ratchford, B.T. (1987) New insights about the FCB grid. Journal of Advertising Research 27(4), Rossiter, J.R. and Percy, L. (1987) Advertising and Promotion Management. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Rossiter, J.R. and Percy, L. (1991) Emotions and motivations in advertising. Advances in Consumer Research 18, Rossiter, J.R. and Percy, L. (1992) A model of brand awareness and brand attitude advertising strategies. Psychology and Marketing 9(1), Rossiter, J.R. and Percy, L. (1997) Advertising Communications and Promotion Management. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. Rossiter, J.R., Percy, L. and Donovan, R. J. (1991) A better advertising planning grid. Journal of Advertising Research 31(5), Sawyer, A. (1981) Repetition, cognitive responses and persuasion. In R.E. Petty, T.M. Ostrom and T.C. Brock (eds), Cognitive Responses in Persausion. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Stevenson, J., Bruner II, G.C. and Kumar, A. (2000) Webpage background and viewer attitudes. Journal of Advertising Research 40(1/2), Tellis, G.J. (1997) Effective frequency: one exposure or three factors? Journal of Advertising Research 37(4), Vaughn, R. (1980) How advertising works: a planning model. Journal of Advertising Research 20(5), Vaughn, R. (1986) How advertising works: a planning model revisited. Journal of Advertising Research 26(1), BIOGRAPHY Micael Dahlén is an Assistant Professor at the Center for Consumer Marketing, Stockholm School of Economics. His research focuses on advertising effectiveness. His work has been published in journals such as Journal of Advertising Research, International Journal of Advertising and Journal of Interactive Advertising.

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