Website user experience
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1 copenhagen business school handelshøjskolen solbjerg plads 3 dk-2000 frederiksberg danmark Website user experience Website user experience A cross-cultural study of the relation between users cognitive style, context of use, and information architecture of local websites Ather Nawaz ISSN Print ISBN: Online ISBN: PhD Series LIMAC PhD School Department of International Business Communication PhD Series
2 Website user experience: A cross-cultural study of the relation between users cognitive style, context of use, and the information architecture of local websites Ather Nawaz LIMAC PhD School Department of IT Management Copenhagen Business School
3 Ather Nawaz Website user experience A cross-cultural study of the relation between users cognitive style, context of use, and information architecture of local websites 1st edition 2013 PhD Series The Author ISSN Print ISBN: Online ISBN: LIMAC PhD School is a cross disciplinary PhD School connected to research communities within the areas of Languages, Law, Informatics, Operations Management, Accounting, Communication and Cultural Studies. All rights reserved. No parts of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
4 Acknowledgment Iwouldliketoexpressmyheartfeltthankstothepeoplewhocontributedtothe completionofthisdissertationandinspiredmeoverthecourseofmyphdstudies. ThisPhDdissertationwouldnothavebeenpossiblewithoutthesupportofmyacademic supervisors.iwouldliketoexpressmysincerestgratitudetomysupervisortorkil Clemmensen,whoseadvice,guidance,encouragementandpatiencehelpedmeineach phaseofmyphd.thankyouforhelpingmetobecomeabetterresearcherandinspiring metobecomeabetterperson.iwouldalsoliketothankmyconsupervisormorten Hertzum.Yourstandardsandattentiontodetailhelpedmelearnthevalueofconducting highnqualityresearch. Theresearchreportedherebenefittedfromfeedbackreceivedduringthefirstandsecond workninnprogressseminars.atthefirstseminarmortenhertzum,dortemadsenand KarlheinzKautzmaderecommendationsthatwereusefulinshapingtheproject.Iwould alsoliketothankolavbertelsenandlenenielsenfortheirvaluablecommentsatthe secondseminar.theremarksbythesepeoplehelpedimprovethequalityofthe dissertation. Iwouldliketothankthereviewersofdifferentconferencesandjournalswhosefeedback helpedinimprovingvariousaspectsofthisresearch.thisincludesthereviewersfrom INTERACT2011,theInternationalConferenceonInterculturalCollaboration2010,the AsiaPacificConferenceonComputerHumanInteraction2012,theInformationSystems ResearchSeminarinScandinavia2011andtheInternationalJournalofHumanNComputer Interaction,volume29,number4. IamtrulygratefulforthesupportofmycolleaguesintheDepartmentofInformaticsand laterinthedepartmentofitmanagementatcopenhagenbusinessschool(cbs).beyond thoseindenmark,iwouldliketothankothersabroadwhofacilitatedthisresearchin PakistanandMalaysia. Manypeoplehelpedbalancemystudiesbyremindingmethatthereismoretolifethan research.thankyouallforthefunwehadincopenhagen,kuching,andlahore. iii
5 Finally,Iwanttothankmyfamilyfortheirloveandprayers.Theirunconditionalsupport andlovehasalwaysbeenagreatsourceofenergy.thankstomywifeiramforherlove andcare.completingthefinalstageofthedissertationwouldnothavebeenpossible withoutyoursupport.specialthankstomyelderbrotherazhar.yourencouragement, supportandbackingwereinvaluable. AtherNawaz Copenhagen,2013 iv
6 Abstract in English Increasingglobalizationandtechnologicaldevelopmenthasledcompaniesandpeople acrosstheglobetoconnectthroughtheglobalinternetcommunity.however,peoplewith differentculturalbackgroundsmayperceivethesameinformationindifferentways.one ofthehurdlestousewebsitesefficientlyistheindifferentstructuresofinformationon website,andtheirrelationwiththecharacteristicsofintendedusersandthecontextofuse forthewebsites.thepurposeofthisdissertationistoassisthumanncomputerinteraction (HCI)practitionersandresearcherswithbetterdesignofwebsitestructuresforuser groupswithdifferentculturalbackgrounds. Thisdissertationlooksintoissuesrelatedtowebsiteuserexperience(UX)andfocuson howthestructuringofinformationisseenfromlocalusers perspectives.inparticular,it attemptstolookintothealignmentbetweenwebsites informationarchitecture(ia)and users viewsofwebsiteinformationstructure,byapplyingacrossnculturalandcontextof useperspectiveontheuxofwebsitesinthreecountries:pakistan,malaysia,anddenmark. Theresearcherinvestigatestowhatdegreeusers cognitivestylesandcontextsofuseare alignedwithlocalwebsites informationarchitecture,andhowthis(lackof)alignment shapestheresultingux. ThisdissertationadoptsamixedNmethodapproachtostudyingtheUXassociationwith users cognitivestyles,contextsofuse,andwebsitestructures.inthisregardacritical literaturereviewoftheexistinghciresearchonwebsiteuxinasiawasperformed.four UXstudieswereconductedonlocaluniversitywebsitesinDenmarkandPakistan,and localencommercewebsitesinpakistanandmalaysia.empiricaldatawascollectedthrough questionnaires,cardnbasedbrainstorming,cardsorting,informationretrievaltasks,and retrospectiveinterviewswith108universitystudentsacrossfourstudies.users cognitive styleswerecapturedthroughusers informationclassification(cardsorting)activities withwebsitecontents.thesedatawereanalyzedthrougheditdistancemeasuresand hierarchicalclusteringthroughdendrograms.thecontextofusewascapturedby collectingdataondomainsofwebsites,interviewsabouttheuseoflanguages,background questionnaires,andinformationretrievaltasks.thesedatawereanalyzedthrough quantitativeanalysisandcodingofretrospectiveinterviews.thestructuresofthe v
7 websiteswerecapturedthroughanalysisofwebsitenavigationandlabelsemployedby eachwebsite. TheliteraturereviewrevealedthatHCIresearchintowebsiteUXinAsiaisgrowing,in particularexaminingacademic,encommercewebsites,andtourismwebsites.the literaturereviewindicatedthattheuseofculturaltheoriesandframeworksforstudying websiteuxislimited.theresultsofthefouruxstudiesindicateddifferencesincognitive styleandcontextofuseacrossthethreelocations,denmark,pakistan,andmalaysia.the Pakistaniusersappearedtohavelargerwithingroupvariationincognitivestylesthanthe otherusergroups,asmeasuredbydifferencesintheirinformationclassification(card sorting).therewasalackofalignmentbetweencognitivestyleandiaoflocalwebsites forpakistaniusers,astheyappearedtospendmuchtimetoretrieveinformationlocated deepinthewebsitehierarchy.therewasacloseralignmentbetweencognitivestyleand IAofwebsiteforusersinDenmarkasusersspendrelativelylesstimetoretrievesimilarly placedinformation.themalaysianusersappearedtobemoresimilartopakistaniusersin termoftheircognitivestylemeasuredbydifferencesintheirinformationclassification (cardsorting),whencomparedwithpakistaniusers. Thisdissertationconcludesthatwebsitestructuresdomatterforuserswithdifferent culturalbackgrounds.itconcludesthatahighdegreeofalignmentoflocalusers cognitive stylesandcontextofusewiththewebsiteiaimprovesthewebsiteux.thedissertation alsodiscusscriticalmethodologicalissuesinusinglocaldatainperformingcrossncultural comparativeanalysisofwebsiteux.thisdissertationcontributestohcitheorywitha modelthatcombinescontextofuse,cognitivestyleandinformationarchitecturethatcan beusedtostudyandcomparewebsiteuxacrosscountries.thefindingofstudyhas implicationsforuxpractitioners,asitshedsanewlightontheneedforalignment betweenwebsitestructuresandusers cognitivestylesandcontextofuse.thestudy contributesmethodologicallybycombiningtheactivitiesofcardnbasedbrainstorming, cardsorting,informationretrievaltasks,andretrospectiveinterviewsinacrossncultural comparativestudyofux.themaincontributionsofthedissertationarereportedthrough fourarticlesandaredirectedatbothacademichciresearchersandpractitioners. vi
8 Resumé på Dansk Globaliseringenogdenteknologiskudviklingharmedførtatindividerogvirksomheder medforskelligkulturelbaggrundoverheleverdenbliverforbundetgennemdetglobale internetsamfund.informationbliverdogikkenødvendigvisopfattetensafmennesker medforskelligkulturelbaggrund.enafforhindringerneforatkunnebrugewebsider effektivterufleksibleinformationsstrukturer,samtdisseinformationsstrukturers forbindelsemedkarakteristikkerafdeønskedebrugereogdereskontekstspecifikke anvendelse.formåletmeddenneph.d.nafhandlingeratbidragetilatpraktikereog forskereihumanncomputerinteraction(hci)kandesignebedreinformationsstrukturer tilhjemmesiderrettetmodbrugergruppermedforskelligekulturellebaggrunde. Denneph.d.Nafhandlingundersøgerforbindelsenmellembrugeroplevelsen(User Experience,UX)ogstruktureringenafinformationpåenhjemmesideudfraetbrugerN perspektiv.denundersøgerisærdeleshedsammenhængenmellemenhjemmesides informationsarkitektur(ia)ogbrugerenssynpåhjemmesidensinformationsstruktur. DetteundersøgesvedatanlæggeettværkultureltogbrugskontekstNorienteretperspektiv påbrugeroplevelsenafhjemmesideritrelande:pakistan,malaysiaogdanmark.i forlængelseherafundersøgesihvilkengradenhjemmesidesinformationsarkitekturer afstemtmedlokalebrugereskognitivestilogkontekstspecifikkebrugaflokale hjemmesidersinformationsarkitektur,samthvorledesdenne(eventuellemanglende) afstemningpåvirkerresultatetafbrugeroplevelsenafdenlokalehjemmesidefordelokale brugere. Ph.d.Nafhandlingenanvenderenkombineret(mixedNmethod)tilgangtilatundersøge brugeroplevelsensforbindelsetilbrugerneskognitivestil,brugskontekstog hjemmesidensstruktur.indledningsvisblevderudførtenkritisklitteraturgennemgangaf HCIforskningenibrugeroplevelsenafhjemmesideriAsien.Derergennemførtfire brugeroplevelsesnundersøgelseraflokaleuniversitetershjemmesideridanmarkog Pakistan,samtlokaleeNhandelshjemmesideriPakistanogMalaysia.Dererblevet indsamletempiriskedatagennemspørgeskemaundersøgelser,kortnbaseret brainstorming,kortnsortering,øvelseriinformationstilegnelseogretrospektiveinterviews med108universitetsstuderendeunderdefirestudier.brugereneskognitivestilblev undersøgtgennemøvelsermedklassifikationafinformation(kortsorteringsnøvelse)fra vii
9 enhjemmeside.dissedatablevanalyseretvedbrugafetmålforafstandmellem kortsorteringer(editndistance),oghierarkiskklyngenanalyse(hierarchicalclustering analysis)medengrafiskpræsentation(dendrogrammer).brugskontekstenblevundersøgt vedatindsamledataomhjemmesidendomæner,interviewsomsprogbrug, baggrundsspørgsmålogopgaverominformationssøgning.dissedatablevanalyseret gennemkvantitativanalyseogkodningafinterviews.hjemmesidenstrukturerblev undersøgtgennemanalyseafnavigationenpåhjemmesidenogdebetegnelserderblev brugtforinformationspåhverthjemmeside. LitteraturgennemgangenvisteatHCIforskningenombrugeroplevelsenafhjemmesideri Asienervoksende;isærnårdetgælderakademiske,eNhandelogturismehjemmesider. Litteraturgennemgangenindikerede,atbrugenafkulturelleteorierogNmodellertilat undersøgebrugeroplevelsenafhjemmesidenhidtilharværetbegrænset.resultaterneaf defirebrugeroplevelsesnundersøgelserindikeredeforskelleikognitivstilog brugskontekstpåtværsafdetrelande:danmark,pakistanogmalaysia.depakistanske brugeresyntesatvisestørrevariationindenforgruppenidereskognitivestil sammenlignetmeddeandrebrugergrupper,nårdetteblevmåltvedforskellei klassificering(kortsortering)afinformationfrahjemmesiden.dervarenringegradaf afstemningmellemdepakistanskebrugereskognitivestilogdelokalehjemmesiders informationsarkitektur.dettefremgikvedatdepakistanskebrugereanvendtelangtidpå athenteinformationdervarplaceretdybtihjemmesidensstruktur.dervarenbedre sammenhængmellemdenkognitivestiloghjemmesidensinformationsarkitekturhosden danskebrugergruppe,idetdissebrugereanvendtemindretidpåatfindeinformation placeretdybtidenlokalehjemmesidesstruktur.demalaysiskebrugerelignedede pakistanskeidereskognitivestil,måltvedklassifikationafinformation(kortsortering). Denneafhandlingkonkludererathjemmesidestrukturerharbetydningforbrugeremed forskelligekulturelbaggrund.denkonkludereratenhøjgradafafstemningaflokale brugereskognitivestilogbrugskontekstmeddenlokalehjemmesides informationsarkitekturforbedrerbrugeroplevelsenafhjemmesiden.afhandlingen diskutererogsåkritiskemetodologiskespørgsmålvedanvendelseaflokaledatai tværkulturelkomparativanalyseafbrugeroplevelsenafhjemmesider.denneafhandling bidragertilhciteorimedenmodelderkombinererbrugskontekst,kognitivstilog viii
10 informationsarkitektur,ogsomkanbrugestilatundersøgeogsammenligne brugeroplevelsenafhjemmesideriforskelligelande.afhandlingenervigtigforux praktikereidetdenkasternytlyspåbehovetforafstemningafhjemmesidersstruktur, brugereskognitivestilogderesbrugskontekst.afhandlingensmetodiskebidragliggeri kombinationenafaktiviteternekortnbaseretbrainstorming,kortsortering, informationssøgningsopgaverogretrospektiveinterviews.afhandlingenshovednbidrager kommunikeretgennemfirevidenskabeligeartiklerrettetmodakademiskehciforskereog praktikere. ix
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12 Table of Contents 1 Introduction Rationaleandfocusfortheresearch ResearchQuestion Dispositionofthedissertation Introductiontotheempiricalresearch The+Setting Internationalizationandlocalization Accommodationoflocalusers interactionstyleandlanguagebackground Theory+and+related+work Culturalbackgroundofwebsiteusers Ethnicgroup,CulturalGrouporaNationalGroup? SocioNculturaldifferencesinvaluesandcommunicationstyles Cognitivestylesandculturaldifferences Criticalreflectionontheconceptofculture Contextofuseofwebsites Definingcontextofuse InformationArchitecture MorvilleandRosenfeld smodelofinformationarchitecture(ia) DennandMaglaughlinmodelofinformationarchitecture CriticalreflectionontheconceptofIA UXofwebsites Mytheoreticalapproach Philosophy+of+science+in+this+dissertation Researchfoundations Ontologicalstandpointofthisdissertation EpistemologicalConsiderationforStudiedPhenomenon Empirical+research Researchdesign Cognitivestyle:informationclassificationactivities...60 ix
13 5.1.2 Contextofuse:domainofwebsite,informationretrieval,websitelanguage Informationarchitecture:Websitenavigationandwebsitelabels UXissues Relationshipbetweenempiricalstudies1,2,3,and Participants SelectionofParticipants Recruitmentofparticipants Websitenavigationandwebsitelabels Instructionsandtasks StagesinUXstudy Roleoftestleader CardsortinginHCI CardSorting RetrospectiveInterviews Dataanalysis Results Literaturereviewstudy Study1:UXstudyofanacademicwebsiteinPakistan Activity1:ScenarioNbasedbrainstormingthroughcardsorting Activity2:Opencardsorting Activity3:Informationretrieval Resultsfrominterviewsinstudy Study2:UXstudyofanacademicwebsiteinDenmark Activity1:ScenarioNbasedBrainstormingthroughCardSorting Activity2:OpenCardSorting Activity3:Informationretrieval Resultsfrominterviewsinstudy Study3:UXstudyofaneNcommercewebsiteinPakistan Descriptionofparticipants Thewebsitestudied Cardsortingresults Informationretrievalresults...94 x
14 6.4.5 WebsiteuseinlocalandEnglishlanguage Study4:UXstudyofaneNcommercewebsiteinMalaysia Descriptionofparticipants ThewebsiteinMalaysia Cardsortingresults Informationretrievalresults ResultsofwebsiteuseinlocalandEnglishlanguage Cardsortinganalysis Discussion ExploringwebsiteUXinAsia WebsiteUXassessmentacrossstudies Exploringusers modelsofia Measuringinformationretrieval Contextofuseofwebsites CriticalreflectiononHCIresearchdesignincrossNculturalstudies Limitations Limitationsofstudies1and Limitationsofstudies3and Generallimitations Conclusion Answeringtheresearchquestion Theoreticalcontribution PracticalContribution References Appendices Appendix+1:+Research+articles+selected+for+the+dissertation Appendix1a:ResearchArticle Appendix1b:ResearchArticle Appendix1c:ResearchArticle Appendix1c:ResearchArticle xi
15 10 Appendix+2+ +Manual+for+studies InstructionsforTestleader ExecutionofCardbasedBrainstorming/ScenarioBasedCardSorting ExecutionofOpencardsorting Plan DemonstrationofTestleadertoparticipants Activity Activity Activity Feedbackofparticipants Timedistributionforasingleparticipant Study+1+(Denmark),+Study+2(Pakistan)+Q+Data+collection InformedConsentAgreementofStudy Purposeofstudyandparticipationrequirements AnonymityandConfidentiality ParticipationAgreement Study1,2:Participantsinformation InstructionsProvidedtoParticipants Activity1 ScenarioBasedCardsorting Activity2NOpenCardSorting Cardusedforstudy1inPakistan Cardusedforstudy2inDenmark Activity3:TaskExploration TaskExplorationTasksusedforStudy TaskExplorationTasksuseforStudy EvaluationandgeneralperceptionaboutthewebsiteinStudy1andStudy PostStudy1N2Questionsideas Study+3+(Pakistan)+Q+Data+collection InvitationUsedtorecruitparticipantsofstudy PreNTestQuestionnaire Instructionsfortheparticipants xii
16 12.4 Activity Activity CardsusedfortheStudy Activity TASKEXPORATION Evaluationofwebsite Study+4+(Malaysia)+Data+collection PreNTestQuestionnaire Activity Activity CardsusedfortheStudy Activity Evaluationandgeneralperceptionaboutthewebsiteyoujustvisited Appendix+4+ +Dendrograms DendrogramofCardsortActivityforPakistanParticipants(Study3) DendrogramofCardsortActivityforMalaysianParticipants(Study) Appendix+5+ +Screenshots+of+studied+website xiii
17 List of Figures Figure'1:Literaturethemesofstudy...7 Figure'2:ThecontentorganizationofaleadingnewspaperinPakistan...21 Figure'3:ThecontentorganizationofaleadingnewspaperinDenmark...23 Figure'4:ThecontentorganizationofaleadingnewspaperinMalaysia...25 Figure'5:MorvilleandRosenfeld smodelofinformationarchitecture...44 Figure'6:ElementsofnavigationonBilingualPakistaniwebsite...44 Figure'7:ModelofIAbyDennandMaglaughlin...46 Figure'8:TheidealandthecriticalsituationofUXinlocalwebsites...51 Figure'9:Realisticperspective...56 Figure'10:Philosophicalpositioningofdissertation...57 Figure'11:Datacollectionmodel...60 Figure'12:Differenttypesofwebsitestructures...64 Figure'13:Thesequenceofthefourstudies...65 Figure'14:Participantsandtheiractivitiesinstudies1N Figure'15:Participantengagedintheopencardsortingactivityinstudy Figure'16:Participantengagedintheopencardsortingactivityinstudy Figure'17:Websiteusabilityresearcharticlesintheperiod2001N Figure'18:Thedistributionofthe60articlesonWebsiteUsabilityinAsiaacrosscountries...79 Figure'19:ThedendrogramofinformationstructuringbyPakistaniparticipants...93 Figure'20:Searchabletextandtextpresentedasanimage...96 Figure'21:ThedendrogramofMalaysianparticipants websitestructures...99 Figure'22:Relationshipbetweentaskcompletiontimeandanswerdepth Figure'23:'Overviewofinformationretrieval xiv
18 List of Tables Table'1:Outlineoftheempiricalresearch...15 Table'2:Preferencesofculturalmarkers...39 Table'3:Labelsusedinstudy Table'4:StagesofUX...68 Table'5:MeasuringeditdistancefromSortAandSortB...74 Table'6:Stagesofconvertingonesortintoanothersort...74 Table'7:Asummaryofreportedstudiesinpapers...77 Table'8:TheoriesonwebsiteusabilityinAsia...79 Table'9:Articlesusingwebsiteusabilityasaframeworktheory...80 Table'10:Participants backgroundinformation...81 Table'11:Informationclassificationinbrainstormingsession...82 Table'12:Distanceofparticipants sortsfromoneanother...83 Table'13:Goalachievementtimesandsuccessrate...84 Table'14:Summaryofparticipants interviewandfeedbackfortheuniversitywebsite...85 Table'15:Summaryofparticipants feedbackfortheuniversitywebsite...86 Table'16:Participants backgroundinformation...87 Table'17:Informationclassificationinthebrainstormingsession...88 Table'18:Stepstakentomakesort(participantsort)lookidenticaltotheuniversitywebsite(actualsort)...89 Table'19:Goalachievementtimesandsuccessrate...90 Table'20:Summaryofparticipantsfeedbackforuniversitywebsite...90 Table'21:Participants languagefluency...91 Table'22:Informationretrievaltimesandsuccessrate...94 Table'23:BrowsingwebpagesinPakistan...95 Table'24:Malaysianparticipants languagefluencyinenglish,malay,chinese,andtamil...97 Table'25:Informationretrievaltimesandsuccessrate Table'26:BrowsingwebpagesinMalaysia Table27:HCIResearchdesignstructureindiversegeographicallocations xv
19 Abbreviations and acronyms AMM BMM DK HCI IA IS IT PK My PC UCD UX ActualMergerMethod BestMergerMethod Denmark HumanNComputerInteraction InformationArchitecture InformationSystems InformationTechnology Pakistan Malaysia PersonalComputer UserNCenteredDesign UserExperience xvi
20 List of Articles Article+1:++ Article+2:++ Article+3:++ Article+4:+ Nawaz,+A.,+Clemmensen,+T.(2013).WebsiteUsabilityinAsia fromwithin :AnOverviewof adecadeofliterature.'international'journal'of'human1computer'interaction'(ijhci),'29(4), 256N273. Nawaz,+A.,+Clemmensen,T.,andHertzum,M.(2011).InformationClassificationon UniversityWebsites:ATwoNCountryCardSortStudy.InJ.MolkaNDanielsenandK.K. Kimppa(eds.),Selected'Papers'of'the'Information'Systems'Research'Seminar'in'Scandinavia' 2011,pp.109N122.TapirAcademicPress,Trondheim,NO. Nawaz,+AandClemmensen,T.(draft).InformationClassificationandAcquisitionon Websites:UsersInteractiononENcommerceWebsitesintwoAsianCountries. Nawaz,+A.(2012).+AComparisonofCardNsortingAnalysisMethods.Paper'presented'at'10th' Asia'Pacific'Conference'on'Computer1Human'Interaction'(pp.583N592),Matsue,JP,August 28N31). xvii
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22 COVER CHAPTER 1 Introduction Fromahistoricalperspective,thenumberofwebsiteusersinemergingcountries, particularlythoseinasia,isgrowing(pingdom,2010).atthesametime,websitesthat peopleinonecountryusemayhavebeendesigned,developedandevaluatedbypeoplein anothercountry,inanotherpartoftheworld(sahayetal.,2003).inthisdissertation,i presentanddiscussfindingsfromasystematicinvestigationintotheuserexperience(ux) ofawebsiteastheoutcomeoftheinteractionbetweentheuser sviewoftheinformation onthewebsiteandthewebsite sinformationarchitectureinthreecountries:denmark, Pakistan,andMalaysia.Thedissertationthusprovidesinsightsintohowawebsiteisused indifferentcountries,andmakesavailableknowledgethatcanbeusedtobetter understandhowtolocalizewebsitedesigntoaspecificcountry. Advancesintechnologyhavemadeapositiveimpactonwebsiteuse,andpeople increasinglyusewebsitesasasourceofinformationdissemination,knowledgesharing, andinformationretrieval.withagrowthininternetusers,websiteusehasevolved.ithas becomeanintegratedpartofdifferentdomainssuchasencommerce,engovernmentfor informationdispersion,andinformationsharing(elsaid&hone,2004;minochaetal., 2006;Patel&Jacobson,2008).Organizationsareutilizingwebsitetechnologiesforvarious purposes,includingpromotionsofproductsandservices,exchangeofinformation,and connectingwithstakeholders(punchoojit&chintakovid,2012).organizationsare spendingresourcestoimproveandappropriatewebsitesfortheirstakeholdersacrossthe globetomakethemaccessibletoeveryone.indevelopingcountries,particularlyinasia, theinternetinfrastructurehasskippedagenerationandgonestraighttobroadband,with muchofthatbeingmobile(west,2011).asiaaccountsfornearly45%ofworldwide internetuserswithanestimated19%ofthetotalasianpopulationusingtheinternet (Nisbetetal.,2012).Theseadvancementshavemadeitconvenientforenduserstoaccess informationonwebsitesintheirdailylife.publicandprivatecompaniesareusing websitesnotonlyasawaytobroadcastanddisperseinformationbutalsotoget commercialproductstothepopulation. 1
23 Ontheotherhand,peopleindifferentcountriesandregionsoftheworldmayperceive informationonwebsitesindifferentways.studiesfromhciandrelatedfieldsindicatethat peopleindifferentregionsoftheworldmaytendtoapplydifferentwaysofthinkingabout informationandhowitisorganized,whicharerelatedtotheirculturalbackgrounds(yeo &Loo,2004).Suchdifferencesinperceptionofinformationmaycomefromdifferencesin thevalues,attitudes,communications,socialpractices,andcognitivestylesofusers (Nisbett,2003;Plocheretal.,2012).ThesecrossNculturaldesignconcernsalsoexacerbate issuesthatalreadyposechallengesinsinglenculturedesign.whiledifferencesexistin singlenculturedesignbetweensubgroupsofusers,andbetweendesignersand(subgroups of)users,suchdifferencesbecomemoreprofoundincrossnculturaldesign. Thisthesisfocusonusers cognitivestylesandcontextsofuse,andhowthesearealigned withtheinformationarchitectureofalocalwebsite,andhowthisshapethewebsiteux.' Cognitive'stylereferstothedifferentwaysinwhichpeoplethinkaboutandremember information.thisviewofcognitivestyleisinlinewithnisbett(nisbett,2003,ji,pengand Nisbett,2000,Na,etl.,2010)andWitkin s(1967)viewofrelatingcognitivestylewith analyticalandholisticcultures.peoplelivinginanalyticculturestendto detachafocal objectfromtheperceptualfield,categorizeobjectstaxonomicallyandascribecausalityto focalactorsorobjects.peoplelivinginholistic'culturestendto payattentiontotheentire perceptualfield,especiallyrelationsamongobjectsandevents,categorizingobjectsonthe basisoftheirthematicrelations,andattributingcausalitytocontext (Na,et.,2010, p.6192,seealsonisbett,peng,choi,norenzayan,2001;nisbett,2003).' Information'architecture'(IA)referstothestructureofthewebsite,orinmoretangible terms,thewireframesofwebsites.wireframeshelpshciresearchersanddesignersto determinewheretoplacecertaincontentsofthewebsites.thisdissertationusesamore narrowviewthanthebroadviewofiagivenbymorvilleandrosenfield(2006).according tomorvilleandrosenfeld(2006),threethingsmakeupinformationarchitecture:context, contentandusers. The'context'of'usereferstothecharacteristicsofintendedusers,thetasksusersperform, toolsusersuseandtheenvironmentinwhichusersusethesystem(iso9241n210,2010; SeealsoHertzum,2010).Forexample,contextofusecanincludethedomainofawebsite, 2
24 theusers skillsinnavigatingawebsite,andotherissuesrelatedtotheusers cultural background,suchastheusers everydaylanguageuse(nantel&glaser,2008). UXisasubjectivemeasureofthequalityofawebsiteasseenfromusers perspectives.ux ofwebsitesplaysanimportantroleinusers useofgovernmentandprivatesector websites.researchershavedescribeduxasthemajorfactorintheadoptionofwebsites servicesbyitsusers(patel&jacobson,2008;smithetal.,2007).users interactionswith websites,alongwithdesignandpagelayoutareamongthemostimportantuxissues, particularlyforwebsitesthatareusedindevelopingcountries(abanumyetal.,2005). ThedissertationaimsataddingtoknowledgeinthefieldofhumanNcomputerinteraction (HCI)andinformationsystems(IS).HCIisafieldofresearchthatstudies,plans,and designstheinteractionsbetweenpeople(users)andcomputers(sears&jacko,2007). Informationsystems(IS)isafieldofresearchthatstudiesnetworksofhardwareand softwarethatpeopleandorganizationsusetocollect,filter,process,create,anddistribute data(jessup,valacich,&wade,2008;zhang&li,2004).hciandisarepartlyoverlapping. HCIwithinIS,whilemaintainingafocusontheindividualdifferencesamongusersin humanncomputerinteraction,isalsoconcernedwithbusiness,organizational,social,and culturalaspectsoftheinteractionbetweenhumansandcomputers.thisdissertationtake acrossnculturalperspectiveontheuxofwebsites,andthusfollowsthetraditionofhci withinisrelatedresearch. MyresearchvisioninthisdissertationistoconductasystematicinvestigationintotheUX ofwebsitesastheoutcomeoftheinteractionbetweenusers viewsoftheinformationon thewebsiteandthewebsite sinformationarchitectureinthreecountries:denmark, Pakistan,andMalaysia.ThusthisdissertationisacrossNculturalstudyofwebsiteUX. WithinthebroadtopicofwebsiteUX,Ifocusonrelatingthecontextofuseandusers cognitivestylestowebsites informationarchitecture.iarguethattherelationship betweenawebsite sinformationarchitectureanditscontextofuse,andusers cognitive styleswhenclassifyinginformation,shapetheresultinguserexperience.thusthereare fourconceptsthatiwanttorelatetogether:1)cognitivestyle,2)contextofuse,3) informationarchitecture+topics,and4)userexperience(ux).bytheuxofawebsite,i refertothecurrentstandarddefinitionofuxas auser sperceptionandresponsesthat resultfromtheuseoranticipateduseofaproduct,system,orservice (ISO9241N210, 3
25 2010).Forthepurposeoftheresearchpresentedinthisdissertation,Isubsumethe conceptofusabilitywithintheconceptofux.theisostandardiso9241n11describes usabilityastheextenttowhichtheproductcanbeusedbythespecifieduserstoachieve specifiedgoalswitheffectiveness,efficiency,andsatisfactioninspecifiedcontextofuse (ISO9241N11,1998,p.2). ThisiscrossNculturalstudythataimstounderstandtherelationbetweenusers cognitive styles,contextofuse,andlocalwebsites informationarchitecture,whenuserslookfor informationwithinawebsitethatismainlyintendedforusewithinagivencountryor geographicregion,hereaftercalledalocal'website.thisisimportantbecausetheshared knowledgeandcommonpracticeofaparticularlocalusergroupinaparticularlocation mayshapetheiruxofalocalwebsite. 1.1 Rationale and focus for the research Thisresearchaddressestherelevanceofusers culturalbackgroundsandcontextofusein relationtoawebsite sinformationarchitecture,andtheresultingux.therearetwo reasonsfordoingthis. First,thereisanextensiverangeofresearchaddressingtheissuesofcrossNculturaland multiculturalwebsites,i.e.websitesthataredesignedexplicitlyforaninternational audienceorsupposedtobeusedinmanycountries(evers&day,1997;marcus& Hamoodi,2009).Muchofthisresearchliteraturefocusesoninterfacedesignissueand websiteaesthetics(eversetal.,1999;marcus,2003).incontrasttothis,thereisatpresent littlecrossnculturalresearchwithafocusonusersoflocalwebsites(clemmensen&roese, 2010).Inordertodesignanddevelopwebsitesforuse,websitedesignersmusthaveaninN depthunderstandingoftherelationbetweenusers cognitivestyles,contextofuse,and localwebsites informationarchitecture.thisdissertationtakessuchacrossncultural perspectiveontheissueoflocalwebsites. Second,theprocessoflocalizationissupposedtogeneratecultureNdependentcomponents ofwebsitesfortargetculturalusergroups(yeo,1996).ontheotherhand,development practicesareglobalizinginformationstructurestomakethemtheoreticallyaccessibletoa widerangeofusers.theseconflictingandoftenconfuseddevelopmentpracticesdraw uponafundamentalquestionabouthowatargetaudience scognitiveprocessesrelativeto 4
26 websitestructuresimpactonthosewebsites informationarchitectures,andwhatrolethe targetusers contextofuseplayintheconstructionoftheinformationstructure.for example,researchon culturalmarkers hasaddressedtheissuesofbothlocalizationand globalizationofwebsitedesign(barber&badre,1998).culturalmarkersarepreferred patternsandfeaturesforeachlocaluserpopulationthatarefollowedinthedesignofa website.culturalmarkersmayincludetheuseofnationalsymbols,specificcolors,and informationspaceinwebdesign.culturalmarkersresearchaddresseslocalizationby takinganumberofcountries,anddefiningmarkersforusersfromthosecountries. Culturalmarkersresearchthussupportsbothlocalizationandglobalizationofwebsite design.however,culturalmarkersdonotaddresstheinformationstructureofwebsites, donotcoverimportantaspectsoflocalization,anddonottakeintoaccounthowpeople perceivelocalwebsites. Sun(2001)arguedthatitispossibletodistinguishbetweenculturallydifferentuser groupsthateachhavetheirownnorms,whichagainleadtodifferentperceptionsof websites.althoughindustrypracticesmightbepushingwebsitedesignstowards standardizationandinternationalization(singh&boughton,2005),designersmay inevitablyfollowlocalculturalnormswhendesigningwebsites.thismaybethecaseeven whendesignersaredesigningwebsitesforclientsinothercountries.websitesdesigned anddevelopedinaconventionalwayinonecountrymaystillbeinfluencedbythespecific commonknowledgeandpracticesharedbythelocalpopulationfromwhichthedesigners aredrawn,suchasthehierarchicalstructureofsocietyandworkplaceswithinsociety, rhetoricalstrategies,andstrategiesforprocessinginformation(sun,2001).thelocal contextsofuseofawebsite,andthelocalusers culturalbackgroundmay,however,shape thedesignandtheuseofthewebsite,andcruciallyitsinformationarchitecture. Sowhathappenswhenauserfromonecountry,suchasIndia,PakistanorChinaattempts touseawebsitethatisbasedonaninformationstructuredevelopedanddesignedbased onprinciplesandsoftwarefromanotherpartoftheworld,suchasdenmark,sweden,or Germany?Orinversely,whathappenswhenusersfromcountrieslikeDenmark,Sweden orgermanyattempttousewebsitesdevelopedbysoftwaredevelopersfromcountries suchasindia,pakistanorchina?ihypothesizethatitwillaffecttheuxofthewebsite, becausetheuserwillsensethatinformationisorganizedinanunfamiliarway. 5
27 Figure1showsaliteraturemapthatoutlineslocalizationandIAliterature,andpointsout theneedforstudyingcontextofuse,ia,andcognitivestyle.itrelatesusabilityanduxwith cultureandinformationarchitecture 1.Thearrowsonthemapindicatethedirectionfrom thestartingpointoftheissueoflocalizationofwebsiteia,throughtopicsofcurrent literaturetheoriesandframeworks,andendingwiththemainconcernsrelatedtotheneed forperformingcrossnculturalresearchonwebsiteuxthatispresentedinthisdissertation. OnetechniquethatoffersinterestingpossibilitiesforelicitingcrossNculturalaspectsof websiteinformationstructureiscardsorting(hurd,2002;nielsen,2004;rugg& McGeorge,1997).Cardsortinghasbeensuccessfullyusedtoelicitwebpagequalityand users understandingsofwebsites structures.cardsortinggeneratesrichdataabout users categorizationandstructuringofthedomainunderinvestigation.therefore,oneof thepurposesofthisstudyistoinvestigatewhatdifferentcardsortinganalysescantell (andnottell)usaboutlocalwebsiteuxinacrossnculturalstudy,andhowtheuseofthis methodmayinfluencethedesignoflocalwebsites. 1Theconceptofinformationarchitectureisexplainedinsection3ofthecoverchapter;Information architecture(ia)isthefieldofstudyandinformationstructureistheproductthatisanoutcomeofia. 6
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30 1.2 Research Question Theinvestigatedresearchquestionsarethefollowing: RQ:Towhatdegreeareusers cognitivestylesandcontextsofusealignedwiththe informationarchitectureofalocalwebsite,andhowdoesthe(lackof)alignment shapetheux? RQ1.1:Whichissues,relatedtowebsitesandtypesofwebsites,areprominentinwebsite UXresearchdoneinAsia? RQ1.2:Howdolocalusers cognitivestylesrelatetotheircontextofusewhenusinglocal websites? RQ1.3:Howdolocalusers cognitivestylesandcontextofuserelatetotheinformation architectureoflocalwebsites? RQ1.4:HowmaydodifferentcardNsortinganalysesinfluencethedesignoftheinformation architectureofawebsite? Thedissertationthusinvestigatesthealignmentbetweentheinformationarchitectureofa localwebsiteanditslocalusers cognitivestylesandcontextsofuse,andhowthedegreeof alignmentmayinfluencetheresultinguxforlocalusersindenmark,pakistan,and Malaysia. 1.3 Disposition of the dissertation Intherestofthiscoverchapter,Ipresentthebackground,theory,theoryofscience, empiricalresearch,results,discussionandconclusion.afterthecoverchapter,ipresent thefourarticlesthatarepartofthedissertation.theappendicescontainmaterialsforthe readertofullyunderstandtheresearchprocedures. Thecoverchapterisstructuredaccordingtotheeightsectionsdescribedbelow. Section(1:(Introduction( ThefirstsectionofthechapteroutlinesthedifferentconceptsthatIuseinthedissertation. Theseconceptsarecognitivestyle,contextofuse,informationarchitecture(IA),anduser experience(ux).thissectionoutlinestherelevanceofandmotivationforusingthese 9
31 concepts,outlinestheprimaryresearchquestionandfoursubnquestionsinrelationtothe primaryresearchquestion,andpresentsaninitialoverviewofrelevantliteratureforthe study. Section(2:(The(setting( Sectiontwoofthecoverchapterprovidesthebackgroundofthestudy.Thissection providesadiscussionofstandardizationpracticesofwebsitedesignsfromtwo perspectives:internationalizationandlocalization.italsointroducesthedifferencesinthe backgroundoftheusersofwebsitesanddifferencesintheiruseoflanguages. Section(3:(Theory(and(related(work( Thissectionprovidesthetheoreticalbackgroundofthedissertationandrelatedwork.It presentsmultifacetedperspectivesofthenotionofaculturalgroupanditscomplexities. Thepresentedtheoriesandapproachestocultureencompassabroadsetoftheoretical conceptsfromsociocultural,anthropological,andcognitivepsychologyapproaches.the sectionexplainscognitivestyles,contextofuseofwebsites,ux,andinformation architecture.thissectionalsoprovidesacriticalreflectionontheseconcepts.thissection opensupthediscussionoftheconceptualchallengessurroundingtheconceptofculture. Section(4:(Theory(of(Science(in(this(dissertation( Sectionfourofthecoverchapterdiscussessomerelevantresearchfoundationsfor engagedscholarship,andidentifiestheresearchfoundationofthisstudy.thissection describesdifferentphilosophicalstandpointsandgeneralfoundationsthatarefollowedin humanncomputerinteractionandinformationsystemsresearch.attheendofsection,i explainthephilosophicalstandpointofthisdissertation. Section(5:(Empirical(research( Thissectionexplainsthemethod,researchdesign,participants,instruments,procedures, anddataanalysisapproachoftheempiricalstudiesperformed.inthissection,thestudy arguesinfavorofapluralistapproachtotheresearch(creswell,2009).itreflectsupon howresearchresultsarericherandmorereliablewhenmethodsareroutinelycombined together.itdescribestheroleofatestleaderinconductingauxstudy.thissection 10
32 describestheselectionofparticipantsinstudiesandtherecruitmentprocedure.italso explainstherelationshipbetweenempiricalstudies,describesthedemographicsofthe users,andexplainsdifferentdataanalysistechniquesthathavebeenusedduringthe studies. Section(6:(Results( Thissectionpresentsthefourstudiesconductedandprovidescriticalreflectiononthem, includinganexplanationoftheresults.toprovideafullpictureoftheresearchdone,it alsoincludesadditionaldatathathavenotbeenpresentedinthefourarticlesattached. Section(7:(Discussion( Thissectionprovidesadiscussiononthemainresultsofthestudyandtheirrelationtothe existingtheoriespresentedinthetheorysection.furthermore,ireflectonthedifferent methodsusedduringthestudies.limitationsofthestudiesarealsoexplainedinthis section. Section(8:(Conclusion( Section8concludesthecoverchapterbyansweringtheresearchquestionsandoutlining thetheoreticalandpracticalcontributions.thissectionexplainsthecontributionofthis dissertationaswellasthefuturework.finally,thissectionexplainshowthisresearch helpstobuildbetterwebsites. 1.4 Introduction to the empirical research Theperspectiveoflocalusersoflocalwebsiteswasstudiedinaliteraturereviewandfour empiricalstudiesthatarepresentedinsections5,6,and7.asthisdissertationexplores theresearchtopicmainlyfromtheempiricalpointofview,iwillbrieflyintroducethe empiricalresearchbeforeproceedingtoexplainthebackground,theory,method,findings, andresults.table1givesanoverviewoftheempiricalresearch. Inthefirsttwoempiricalstudies(study1andstudy2),Icomparedusers perceptionsof thestructureoftheinformationonthewebsitethroughuxexperimentsattwodifferent locations(pakistananddenmark).thesestudiesexploredtheusers understandingof informationclassificationbyapplyingavarietyofuxmethods,suchascardsorting,task 11
33 exploration,respondents feedbackontheiruseofalocalwebsite,andanalysisofthe informationstructureofthewebsite.iconductedthefirststudyinpakistanbetween December2009andJanuary2010.Thestudylookedintotheusers perceptionof classificationofinformation,andtheresultingux,ofalocaluniversitywebsiteinlahore, Pakistan.IconductedthesecondstudyinDenmarkinAugust2010.Thesecondstudy, similarlytothefirststudy,lookedintotheusers viewsoftheinformation,andthe resultingux,ofalocaluniversitywebsiteincopenhagen,denmark.study1was conductedwith14participantsinpakistan.study2wasconductedwith14participantsin Denmark.Thesetwostudiesarereportedinthesecondpaperofthedissertation(Nawaz etal,2011).icomparedthefindingsfromthefirsttwostudies,andfoundanumberof differencesinhowlocalusersviewedlocalwebsitesatthesetwodifferentlocations.the comparisonofstudy1inpakistanandstudy2indenmarksuggestedthatthefindings frompakistanweredifferentfromwhatcouldbeexpectedfromthecurrentliteratureon websiteuxinwesterncountries(suchasdenmark).forexample,inpakistantherewere issuesrelatedtothecontextofuseintheformofthemultiplelanguagesusedbylocal usersandonthelocaluniversitywebsite.thesefirstfindingsindicatedaneedforadeeper explorationofissuesrelatedtotheusers viewsoflocalwebsitesinpakistanandinother countriesthatcouldbeassumedtoshareasimilarsocionculturalbackgroundandother properties. IconductedmythirdstudyinPakistaninMay2011andthefourthstudyinJuly2011in Malaysia.Thesestudiesexaminedwhetherthefounddifferencesinstudies1and2were duetodifferencesinculturalbackgroundandcontextofuse,andhowthesefindingsmight relatetomethodologicalissuesinmyresearch.forstudies3and4,ichosetouselocal homeapplianceswebsites,sincethesewouldallowuserstobeinotherandperhapsmore typicalrolesthanthatofauniversitystudent.furthermore,myliteraturereviewindicated thatapossibleexplanationforthefounddifferencesbetweenlocalusers viewsoflocal websitesindenmarkandpakistancouldbedifferencesinusers cognitivestyles,soichose tofocusoncognitivestyle,andinparticularusers patternsofclassificationand informationretrieval.studies3and4thusappliedthesamemethodsasstudies1and2, butwithdifferenttypesofusers,andwithaclearerfocusonusers cognitivestylesand contextofuse.themethodsincludedhavingparticipantsorganizinginformationthrough 12
34 cardsortingtasks,informationretrievalonwebsites,evaluationofwebsites,andthe retrospectiveinterviews.study3wasconductedwith30participantsinpakistan.study4 wasconductedwith38participantsinmalaysia.thefindingsfromstudies3and4did indicate,asexpected,thatthelocalusersinpakistanandmalaysiashareasimilarviewof localwebsites.forexample,usersinbothpakistanandmalaysiahadproblemswith multiplelanguageuse,lackofinternetliteracy,andtosomedegreepreferredadifferent wayofclassifyinginformationfromthetaxonomymadebydesignersofthewebsites informationarchitecture.thereisarelativelylargedistancebetweentheusers classificationofinformationonthewebsiteandtheactualinformationarchitecturein PakistanandMalaysia,ascomparedtothatinDenmark.Thesefindingssuggestedthatthe issuesrelatedtowebsiteuxinpakistanandmalaysiaaresystematicallydifferenttothe issuesthatlocalusersindenmarkface.surprisingly,however,thefindingsindicatedthat localusersinpakistanandmalaysiadonothavesimilar,butratherdifferentissueswith localwebsites,includingdifferentlanguageuseissuesanddifferentviewsofwhat informationshouldbeconsideredcentral.overall,however,studies1n4indicatethatthere aresystematicdifferencesbetweenlocalusers viewsofwebsites IAinDenmarkonthe onehand,andinpakistanandmalaysiaontheother,andthatthesedifferencesmay influencetheuxoflocalwebsites.thesefindingsfromthetwostudies(studies3and4) arereportedinthethirdpaperinthedissertation,entitled InformationClassificationand InformationretrievalonWebsites:UsersInteractiononENcommerceWebsitesintwo AsianCountries. Sincecardsortingwasusedthroughoutasthemainmethodfordatacollectionand analysis,adeeperanalysisofcardsortingresultsmayprovideacriticalreflectiononthe useofcardsortingincrossnculturalstudiesofwebsiteux.thedatafromstudy4wasused forananalysisofthecardsortingmethoditself.thecardsortinganalysisexploredhow thechoiceofcardsortinganalysisaffectedthesuggestedinformationstructurefor websites.inthecardsortingtechnique,avarietyofmethodsareusedtoanalyzethe resultingdata.theanalysisofcardsortingdatahelpsdesignerstodiscoverpatternsin howusersmakeclassificationsandthustodevelopanoptimal,userncenteredwebsite structure.analysisofcardsortingthusdrewattentiontowardshowthesamedataforcard sortingcanleadtodifferentassessmentsofusernwebsitealignment,sincetheagreement 13
35 levelbetweenuserscanchangeforsimilardatabasedonthechoiceofanalysis.this analysisofcardsortingisreportedinthefourthpaperinthisdissertation,entitled A ComparisonofCardNsortingAnalysisMethods (Nawaz,2012). 14
36
37
38 1 The Setting Understandingusergroups culturalbackgroundsandtheircontextsofuseisimportant forcompaniestoimprovetheuxofwebsitesincountriessuchaspakistanandmalaysia. PakistanandMalaysiaareethnicallydiversecountries(WorldBank,2012).Malaysiaisa multiculturalcountrycomprisedofdifferentethnic 1 groups,withaslimmajorityofthe populationbelongingtothemainlymuslimmalayethnicity(50.4%),thebuddhistchinese ethnicgroupbeingthesecondlargest(23.7%),followedbyindigenousgroups(11.0%), HinduIndianethnicity(7.1%),andtheremaining7.8%ofthepopulationconsistingof otherethnicgroups.inmalaysiathegovernmenthasmovedtowardtheinternetasakey communicationstechnology,with17.7million(60.7%ofthepopulation)internetusersas of2012(worldbank,2012).likemalaysia,pakistanisanethniclyandlinguistically diversecountry.pakistanhasapopulationofpunjabi(44.15%),pashto(15.42%),sindhi (14.10%),Saraiki(10.53%),Urdu(7.57%),Balochi(3.57%)andothers(4.66%).However incontrasttomalaysia,pakistaniscountryofalmosthomogenouslymuslimethnicity 2 withurduasitsnationallanguage.theinternethaspenetratedinpakistanlaterinthe developmentofinformationtechnology.asof2012,pakistanhad17.9millioninternet users(9%ofthepopulation)andthenumberwasgrowing(worldbank,2012).for Denmark,figuresfromstatisticsDenmark2012showthat89.6%ofcountry s5.5million peopleareofdanishdescentwhereas10.4%areimmigrants 3.Nearlyhalfofthe immigrantsarefromscandinaviancountriesorgermany.incomparisontomalaysiaand Pakistan,Denmarkhasethnicgroupsasverydefiniteminorityofthetotalpopulationof thecountry. Thenumberofwebsitesingeneralisincreasingrapidlyontheinternet.Accordingtoa recentsurveybynetcraft(2012),thereare633millionactivewebsitesontheinternet withanincreaseof51millionwebsitesperyear.theincreaseinthenumberofwebsitesis expandingintheemergingmarketsofasiaandafrica.asthediversityoftheusersonthe internetincreases,thereisanincreasingdemandforknowledgeabouthuman[computer 1Ethnicityisthe subjectivesymbolicoremblematicuseofanyaspectofculture[byagroup]inorderto differentiatethemselvesfromothergroup (DeVos,1975,p.16) 2Thetheoreticalunderstandingoftheconceptsofethnicity,religionandculturalgroupwillbeexplained laterinthetheoreticalsessionofthisdissertation 3DenmarkStatisticshttp:// 17
39 interactionfromlocalperspectives.researchinitiativesregardingthelocalperspectivesof usershavestartedtoemerge.in2011,twoworkshopswereheldtounderstandthelocal perspectiveofusers.theinternationalworkshoponinternationalizationofproductsand systems(iwips 5 )washeldinmalaysiaandanotherworkshop,theifipinteract 6 workshoponlocalandindigenousperspectivewasheldinlisbon.theseworkshops aimedtopresentdifferentlocalandindigenousperspectivesaroundtheworld,andtried toleadtowardaninternationaldialogueonreframingconceptsandmodelsinhciand interactiondesign.recently,aspecialissueoftheinternationaljournalofhuman[ ComputerInteractionemphasizedtheimportanceofaddressingthediversityinHCIand understandinginteractionthroughlocalperspectives(abdelnour[noceraetal.,2013). Fromawebsitelocalizationview,itisimportanttolookintoaspectsofwebsite localizationinawaythatdoesnotfocussolelyonsurfacelevelelementssuchastheuseof colors,symbols,andlanguages.weneedtolookfurtherindepthintousers interaction stylesandtheirassociationwiththoseusers culturalbackgrounds.thisisimportant becausenewmarketsareemerginginwebsiteuseinasiaandafrica,requiringglobal industryandgovernmenttodigintoemergingmarketpracticesatthebottomofthe pyramid.researchershaveincreasinglycalledforaconsiderationofmorediversesubject populations.arecentinteractworkshop HCIshouldnotbeweird 7 hasfocusedon diversifyingsubjectpopulation.intheresearchliteratureonhciandculture,localization practicesofwebsiteshavenotbeenstudiedindepth(abdelnour[noceraetal.,2013).with thediversityofusers,informationsystemsmayleadtouxproblemsstemmingfrom inappropriatedesign(sun,2006).suchinformationsystemscanbeimprovedif localizationpracticesareincludedforintegratingculturalunderstandingsofusers. OnepointofcontentionisthatmuchoftheUXliteratureoriginatesindevelopednations suchastheunitedstatesandtheunitedkingdom.countriesinasiasuchasjapanand ChinadonotappearinthetopcountriesperformingresearchonwebsiteUX.Thus,the researchliteraturemaynotbeclearonhowweshouldcometounderstandlocalusers perspectives,or,morespecifically,theperspectivesofuserswholiveoutsidewestern countries.further,thereiscurrentlyconsiderablevariationinhowcultureisunderstood 5http:// 6http:// 7HCIshouldnotbeWEIRD,WorkshopforINTERACT2013,Link: 18
40 (ornotunderstood)andhowitmightinformhowitproductsareadaptedindifferent culturalgroups. Ineverydaylife,itisoftenachallengetoretrieveinformationfromwebsiteswithlarge amountsofcontent.itiswellknownthatdesigners decisionsaboutthestructureofa systemmaynotmatchhowusersthinkaboutthesystem(delgaldo&nielsen,1996; Norman&Draper,1986).Thechallengemay,however,notbethesameindifferent countries.acentralissueingoodwebsitedesignistheclassificationofinformation (Dumais&Chen,2000;Parsons&Wand,2008).Ifwebsiteinformationisclassifiedina mannerthatfitswellwithhowusersthink,informationretrievalwillbeefficient,andmay evenbeexperiencedassatisfying(bernard,2000;coleetal.,2007). Manycountrieshaveonlyrecentlyjoinedtheglobalinternetcommunity.Mostcross[ culturalstudiesofwebsiteshavefocusedoncross[culturalux(chiu,1972;clemmensenet al.,2007;clemmensen,2012;marcusandgould,2000;mushtahaanddetroyer,2009), includinglanguagebiases(alostathetal.,2011;jietal.,2004)inasianandwestern websites.littleworkappearstohaveinvestigatedusers cognitivestyleandstructureof websitesincommunitiesthathaverecentlyjoinedtheglobalinternetcommunity. Usersofwebsitesmayperceivethemindifferentways(Mvugietal.,2008;Yeo,2002). Developingwebsitestocaterfordifferentculturalgroupsatthesametimeisacomplex process,asthetargetusersofanygivenwebsitemaybediverse.companiescatertousers interactionstylesinavarietyofways.thisincludesspendingresourcestodealwithuser[ centereddesignissuesforthoseculturalgroupswhoseuserscomefromdifferentsocio[ culturalbackgroundandusedifferentlanguages.companiesspendtheseresources,for example,totranslatetheirwebsiteinlanguageswhichfitbetterwiththelocalusers languagepriorities.thisissuebecomesmoreimportantfordevelopingnations,which frequentlyconsistofmultipleethnicgroups.thelikelihoodofwebsiteshavingbeen developedforeachoftheseethnicgroupsisfairlylow.thus,thecultural[fitofwebsites includestheuseofmultiplelanguages,providinglocalcontent,andfocusingonusers approachestointeractionwithinthetargetcommunities. Althoughwithadvancesinsearchenginetechnologiessomeusersmayarriveattheir targetinformationwithwell[formulatedqueries,forotherswebnavigationitselfremains 19
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