Issues in the Ongoing Development of Professional Doctorates: The DBA Example

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1 Issues in the Ongoing Development of Professional Doctorates: The DBA Example Ruth Neumann and Mike Goldstein Abstract Professional doctorates have expanded swiftly in the past decade and the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) currently represents a substantial proportion of all Australian professional doctorates. This paper examines the context and policies which introduced professional doctorates in It then considers the case of the DBA, providing an overview of the scope, structural characteristics and funding of programs. The development of the DBA raises issues relevant not only to the DBA, but all professional doctorates: the distinctiveness and purpose of the doctorate, including the role and type of research; quality and standards; and issues of supervision and student attrition. These issues form an important research agenda, particularly when considering appropriate models of doctoral education for practitioners. Introduction A rapid but relatively unnoticed development within Australian universities in the 1990s has been the expansion of professional doctorates. Introduced in 1990, they reflect not only the expansion of, and demand for, alternative doctoral level study, but also the diversification of disciplines and modes of research. Their growth has seen the offering increase from one in 1990, to 48 in 1996, to more than 105 different professional doctorates in 2000 (Maxwell and Shanahan, 2000; Shanahan, 1996). A similarly rapid growth has been documented in the U.K., where, in the period from 1998 to 2000, the number of professional doctorates swelled from 109 to 153 (Bourner, Bowden and Laing, 2000). Within Australia, a biennial conference organized by Maxwell and Shanahan commenced in the mid 1990s, providing opportunity for academics and professional doctorate students to share developments across an increasing range of disciplines. As part of this biennial conference there have been two surveys of the range and number of professional doctorates (Maxwell and Shanahan, 2000; Shanahan, 1996). However, outside this forum, it appears that systematic research on professional doctorates is lagging behind practice. This paper has two aims. The first is to examine the Australian higher education context and the specific policies which have given rise to professional doctorates. The second is to provide an initial picture, of necessity broad brush, of the development of the DBA. Thus, the first section provides a detailed analysis of the national policy reports which recommended the introduction of professional doctorates into Australian universities. The following section then considers the development of the professional doctorate with reference to the particular case of the degree of Doctor of Business Administration (DBA). The final section discusses some of the key issues that need to be addressed within the current expansion of doctoral education and the professional doctorate. The Introduction of Professional Doctorates: Context and Policy The late 1980s and early 1990s were a time of turbulence within Australian higher education. The period saw the predicted (Goldstein, 1969) abolition of the binary system of higher education of universities and colleges of advanced education (CAEs), which had existed for over two decades, and the formation of the Unified National System (UNS). Such major change had massive implications for the missions of institutions of the former college sector and the work roles of their academic staff. It also greatly increased the number of students attending university and introduced a period of expansion of student numbers without a corresponding expansion in staff numbers and institutional funding. Although the former

2 college sector is now better funded than it was prior to the UNS, for a variety of subtle differences, its overall funding still lags that of the former university sector, which however, is itself now less funded than it was. Importantly for this study, the creation of the UNS opened the door to doctoral level study to the former college sector, albeit, in a climate of funding constraint. Two reports of the then Higher Education Council (HEC), the Review of Australian Graduate Studies and Higher Degrees (NBEET, 1989) and Higher Education Courses and Graduate Studies (NBEET, 1990), had the aim of undertaking a review of the scope, structure, quality and spread of postgraduate education in Australia (NBEET, 1989). An important caveat was that the HEC s advice on postgraduate education was to be given in the context of the Government s broad economic, social and budgetary guidelines (1989: vii). These budgetary guidelines made it clear that there [was to] be no further growth in expenditure in the employment, education and training portfolio to cover new policy proposals in future financial years (1989: viii). Thus, expansion of postgraduate research students was within the specific direction of limited government funding to institutions. A decade after their introduction, an increasing number of professional doctorates, at least in education and business, have been launched, for some courses as full-fee funded, for some as HECS and others as HECS [1] exempt. The potential for professional doctorates to provide an alternative source of revenue was not missed in the climate of government funding cuts and a progressively more market-oriented higher education sector. Most recently, Gallagher (2000a: 12) expects that specifically-designed Professional Doctorates may have some market attraction. A key objective of the HEC review was also to raise discussion on the appropriateness of current course structures for future employment and career paths. The HEC recognized that many PhD graduates were finding employment in non-academic appointments. While acknowledging the need for further research regarding the effect of higher degree studies on subsequent careers, the report noted that by the late 1980s only one third of new PhD graduates were taking up academic appointments. A further one third took up appointments in the public and private sectors and one quarter went overseas following graduation (NBEET, 1989). These findings were seen to call into question the appropriateness of current doctoral course structures for future employment and career paths and in response, the report flagged the potential for establishing professional doctoral programs. The goal of these programs was to provide, opportunities to conduct and participate in research of diverse kinds relevant to various professional careers (NBEET, 1989: ix). It was hoped that this would attract a broader range of students to postgraduate study and develop closer links with professional bodies and non-academic employers. Specifically, the report recommended the piloting of professional doctorates in the fields of engineering, accounting, law, education and nursing. In doing so, the report maintained that the PhD should remain the route for thorough research training in the various fields of study (NBEET, 1989:26). It believed that admission to the PhD program should require demonstrated evidence of capacity for research, either through the traditional honours route or through a Masters Qualifying or Masters Preliminary year. It also believed that PhD programs should exist in departments with staff, equipment and resources for advanced research. Professional doctorates were envisaged as an alternative to the traditional PhD for applied and practice-oriented professions. The report proposed professional doctorates as: an alternative doctoral degree to provide extended and advanced training in certain professional fields where projects and investigations are applied in nature, oriented to practice in the professions and where, in some cases, the setting might be industry-based rather than campus-based. (NBEET, 1989:28) The report maintained that the PhD should be seen as a basic research degree (1989:28), but that the professional doctorate should be seen as complementary to the PhD in some fields such as engineering and education but be more attractive to students in fields such as accounting and law where PhD student numbers and staff with PhDs were low. The report emphasized that it did not view professional doctorates as coursework doctorates, since the report wanted to emphasize professional training which will probably require substantial pieces of investigative work, projects and exercises, in addition to straight coursework (p. 28). This too was to be seen as distinct from the introduction of coursework

3 requirements in the PhD in some fields. Parenthetically, full coursework doctorates were not proposed as an option for development in this review. In formulating its recommendations, the HEC acknowledged the influence of several other reports and studies in progress. The first of these was the Review of Higher Education Research Policy (NBEET, 1989). The HEC maintained that the continuum of basic through strategic and applied research was mirrored in a continuum of needs in professional training from the theoretical to the practical (1989:28). Another was the paper Staffing Implications of Growth in Higher Education (NBEET, 1989), which projected a shortfall in the number of qualified staff to meet the expansion of higher education. Many of the shortfalls were anticipated in accounting, administration, economics and engineering. To help counteract this expected shortfall, one solution involved finding ways to reduce the length of research degree completions and to make institutions take advantage of the current restructuring of higher education... so that any growth... [takes into consideration] the full range of types of course... including graduate certificate and coursework Doctoral programs (NBEET, 1989:40). Thus it was hoped that professional doctorates would also be a means to increase more quickly the numbers of qualified academic staff with doctorates, especially in the nontraditional PhD areas of the professional disciplines. Most of the anticipated professional growth areas were strongly represented in the former college sector as well as professions in which PhDs were not the norm. The HEC proposals were thus a means of encouraging postgraduate doctoral level study and research in these areas as well as a means for former college academics to improve the level of their qualifications. In its subsequent report (NBEET, 1990), it was noted that a national stakeholder seminar on the 1989 recommendations had showed mixed support for the notion of professional doctorates, but had supported the inclusion of coursework in doctoral programs. The formal written responses to the recommendation, however, offered either strong or in principle support for both the concept of the professional doctorate and the suggested pilot program (1990:124). The summary of submissions stated that: Only a few respondents opposed the recommendation [of professional doctorates]. They perceived, inter alia, that there was no need for a new category of doctoral award, i.e. strategic/applied research including in some cases a coursework component, was already catered for by the existing doctoral award. These respondents were concerned that the introduction of the new award would result in a diversion of funds from the PhD award; that the new award would be of inferior standing vis-à-vis the PhD degree and would not enhance the status of professions such as nursing; and that those with a professional doctorate as opposed to a PhD degree might be inappropriate for academic staff appointments. (1990:124-5) The submissions also reflected views that the PhD should be the premier research training degree, that professional doctorates were a viable alternative in some fields, and that consideration should be given to adopting the North American model of PhD study by including the provision of coursework. In response to this consultation, the recommendation of the final HEC report was to: Augment traditional doctoral programs, within the overall requirement that doctoral degrees include a substantial component of original research which significantly contributes to some area of knowledge, by broadening existing PhD guidelines or alternatively by introducing, on a pilot basis, professional doctoral degrees which require advanced applications of existing knowledge and technology in professional settings in fields such as engineering, accounting, law, education and nursing. (1990:30) Reading the reports more than a decade later, it is hard to escape the perception that the report s authors were still ideologically within the binary philosophy of an artificial distinction between types of institution, discipline and research, the equal but different (Goldstein, 1969) notion of the binary era. There appears to be ambivalence about the status of professional doctorates if the PhD was still to be seen as the premier research degree and the distinction between pure and applied research is not always so neat in practice (Neumann, 1993). At the time of the report, amalgamations were still underway and there was a concern to open routes into the perceived traditional university domain of research and research training. It is

4 interesting to note the similarity of development within the U.K. since the demise of its binary divide, but different arguments and rationales on developments of doctoral level study exist in other Western countries without a formal binary system (see e.g. Noble, 1994; OECD, 1995). So while the policy documents can be argued to reflect the thinking and language at the time of the binary demise, they can be also be argued to reflect part of a broader international focus of the purpose of doctoral study and the role of research within society. In the decade since these reports, professional doctorates have become fairly well established. By 1996 there were 48 professional doctorates offered by 27 Australian universities, enrolling around 900 students with a 42 per cent enrolment increase from 1995 to 1996 (Shanahan, 1996). Enrolments were in fields as diverse as architecture, creative arts, environmental design, health services, education, nursing, psychology and science education. However, although overall enrolment growth from 1989 had been steady, enrolment growth in individual doctorates was small. Of the disciplines, education was the first to take advantage of professional doctorates, possibly drawing on the success of the EdD in the U.S. In Maxwell and Shanahan s 1996 survey the EdD represented 40 per cent of professional doctorates, followed by Legal/Juridical Science 17 per cent, and Business Administration l0 per cent. By 2000, professional doctorates within the field of Administration [2] had increased from six offerings in 1996 to 18, and now representing 17 per cent of all Australian professional doctorates. Curiously, of the fields specifically suggested for piloting in the 1989 NBEET report (namely: engineering, accounting, law, education and nursing) only departments of education took up the challenge in a big way. Within professional doctorates, the DBAs are a significant element whose development in the latter half of the 1990s is discussed below. The Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) Given the growth of DBA offerings in the latter part of the 1990s, this section examines the case of the DBA as an example of the development of professional doctorates in Australian universities. The intention is to give a broad overview to highlight key features of DBA programs. As always when looking at the bigger picture, gaps become obvious and these are discussed in the context of ongoing research needs. Thus, this examination restricts itself to three data sources: 1. Web and documentary sources [3] 2. Personal administrative and teaching experience, in particular of one of the authors [4], and, 3. Analyses of accounts of, and reflections on, professional doctorates, in particular the DBA. This overview of DBA programs provides a picture of their scope, structural characteristics, the role of research and funding of programs. Number and scope of DBA programs A web survey undertaken in late 2000 showed that sixteen DBA programs were being offered in Australian universities at that time. Of these, three were offered in the traditional universities whose program structure appeared to be holistic and the other thirteen in universities from the former college sector with apparent mixed program structures (see Table 1). While the reasons for this distribution can only be surmised, it could be that these new universities of the UNS were more receptive to the HEC recommendations of professional doctorates given that in their previous mode they had no experience with PhDs and, coupled with the growth in numbers in management students nationally [5], moved to offer new types of doctoral programs. It is interesting to note, that based on our web survey all of these universities appear also to offer a PhD in management. Further research would be concerned to examine more closely faculty and departmental rationales in offering these two types of doctoral programs. Structure of the DBA programs

5 Table 1: Universities in the two contrasting DBA structures Holistic DBA Structure Mixed DBA Structure All founded as universities Macquarie University Murdoch University University of Western Australia All formerly CAEs Charles Sturt University Curtin University of Technology Northern Territory University RMIT University Southern Cross University Swinburne University of Technology University of Ballarat University of Canberra University of South Australia University of Southern Queensland University of Western Sydney University of Sunshine Coast Victoria University Table 2: Properties of the DBA structures Property Duration Coursework No Coursework Subjects Thesis Coursework-Thesis Weighting Fees The Holistic Structure 3-6 years Research methods, symbiotically integrated to thesis 4 research methods subjects Traditional apprenticeship model, max words 70,000-80,000 1/3 coursework 2/3 thesis Thesis dominates assessment MGSM fee paying (local students pay less than international students); UWA and Murdoch used HECS exempt for local students, fee paying for international students The Mixed Structure 2-6 years Discipline subjects plus research methods, some integration to thesis Wide variation from 5 subjects to 32 Wide variation from traditional apprenticeship model to portfolio of 6 publishable articles; max words 40,000-60,000 Wide variation 2/3, ½, 1/3 coursework 1/3, ½, 2/3 thesis Mixed assessment Mostly fee paying, though some with 2/3 thesis used doctoral scholarships The web survey data also assists in identifying key structural features of the various DBA programs. In analysing these structures we have classified them into two general categories based on the number and type of coursework subjects offered within the program (see Table 2). Three of the universities stand out in offering mainly four units of coursework with a strong emphasis on research methods designed to dovetail very closely with the thesis component of the DBA and that is why we have called their structures ho1istic'. By contrast we have called the structures of the other universities mixed because of the wide variation in the number of subjects offered, namely, from five to 32. This structure seeks to expose students to a range of discipline-specific, mostly content subjects but some research methods courses are included. The brief web descriptions appear to indicate that the extent of integration of these courses into the actual thesis topic is less intense, serving more of a broadening function, both in their introduction to research methods and also the management discipline. There may also be an attempt to emulate the approach of American universities to doctoral studies, in which discipline coursework is an integral part. Depending on the university, students are constantly exposed to some of the best and most recent papers in the field, as well as to research in progress, effectively building the student s grasp of research methodology by examining in detail the methodology of cutting edge research. It is also interesting to observe that the holistic structure is represented in the three traditional universities whereas the newer universities have adopted the mixed structure. Again, further research would be needed to probe rationales of DBA introduction, but it may be that the newer universities felt less constrained to adopt a traditional PhD approach. The role of research and research methods

6 As stated above, the purpose of coursework in the holistic structure is to support the development of the thesis, the dominant part of the DBA. The aim is to introduce students to the range of research methods in the discipline and have the students immediately practice the research skills they learn in the coursework by applying it to the development of their thesis topic. This emphasis on developing the rigour of research skills is fundamental to the underlying philosophy of the three universities, which have as their overarching educational objective imparting to practitioners rigorous research skills with a focus on practical problems and opportunities so that they in turn may be able to apply them to their own practice, thereby becoming better practitioners (see e.g MGSM, 2000). It could be argued, that these DBAs appear little different from PhDs, indeed, the close coupling of research methods courses to the thesis could be argued as a desirable feature for PhD programs, especially in a field such as management. Other differences flow from the number and type of courses required. The minimum length of both the degree itself (two years as opposed to three) and of the thesis (40-60,000 as opposed to 70-80,000 words) is less in the mixed structure. This, however, should not be taken to imply that the work is of lesser quality, but clearly the trade-off between the depth to which the research project is taken and the number of formal courses given is dealt with in different ways by the two university groups. Of more concern is the weighting given to the research component of the course, an issue that will be dealt with in the final section of this paper. However, it is important to note that the research or thesis component, as opposed to the formal coursework, comprises between one third and two thirds of the degree requirements. Indeed, among these programs research in the form of a single thesis comprises one form of research, while some programs promote portfolios of papers, defined as publishable articles. Such diversity and differentiation in the role and type of research would clearly differentiate such DBAs from the PhD and perhaps be more akin to the intentions of the original HEC recommendations. However, the balance between coursework and research requirements could lead to questions about the distinctiveness between masters and doctoral research, an issue taken up in more detail in the final section of the paper. Funding of DBA programs The ratio of research to coursework is also connected to funding structure and strongly affects the nature of the DBA. As indicated earlier, the HEC reports did not comment on funding for PhDs and professional doctorates though they explicitly acknowledge the social and economic climate of no growth in higher education expenditure. If an intention of professional doctorates was the prospect of fee raising, then this is not strongly evident in the current provision of DBAs for local students. Data from the survey sources indicates that at present, amongst the mixed approach degrees, few are self-funding, with most being HECS based. Within the holistic structure, only the program at Macquarie is fully funded through student fees. A fully funded approach can be seen to have important implications for the degree since it requires a viable enrolment. At Macquarie, an annual cohort of 20 students is deemed necessary for the course to be viable. This number, however, potentially creates supervision problems as the student to staff ratio is raised (see next section for further discussion). The implications for HECS funding it appears may not have been fully understood when professional doctorates were first introduced. If the thesis component is to have a weighting of 2/3 as required for HECS funding, the minimum duration of the whole course would have to be 3 years. The Murdoch DBA, for example, was launched as a two-year degree and it was 18 months into the course that it was discovered it would not qualify for HECS funding. Thus, with few exceptions, it appears that the majority of DBAs are now structured in a way that will attract HECS exempt places for students. The effect is likely to exacerbate the supervision problem. Maxwell and Shanahan (2000) note that of the 29 non-edd doctorates, thirteen have a research component of more than 66 per cent, while Hallebone and Banerjee (2000) specifically comment on the constraints imposed on innovation and experimentation with structure of a DBA program based on the government funding constraints. Issues for policy, practice and research The above, broad examination of DBA programs raises a number of issues, particularly regarding the funding, structure and role of research in both the DBA and, by extension, professional doctorates generally. This present section seeks to address some of the more specific questions that arise from the

7 above discussion. These issues include the distinctiveness and purpose of the doctorate, including the role and type of research; quality and standards; and issues of supervision and student attrition. Each issue will be examined in turn. Distinctiveness of the DBA and the role of research A major consideration is the distinctiveness and purpose of professional doctorates compared with the PhD. While the previous analysis has shown two major groupings within the DBA structure, it is clear that one of those, the holistic structure, is very like the PhD. In fact, it may be considered to be a good model for PhDs in a field such as management, and one that incorporates elements of the North American PhD. The second model, the mixed structure, shows diversity in approach, though the danger exists that increased weighting of coursework and reduced weighting of thesis would make these DBAs not unlike the research master s model, while others appear to be seeking a more unique model applicable to a professional doctoral level qualification. Much needed at the moment is discussion on the role of research, originality in research, and the appropriate size for a doctoral thesis. Connected to this discussion is the articulation between master s and doctoral level study to avoid a blurring of the boundaries. Important in the initial HEC policy documents was the statement that all doctorates should include a substantial component of original research, although the PhD was to be the basic research degree (NBEET, 1990). This last statement, however, is problematic. While its general nature on the one hand has the advantage of allowing flexibility of interpretation, it can also be seen to lack the concrete guidelines required to circumvent a potential confusion of definitions and programs. However, alongside the policy developments, recent discussion (Gibbons et al, 1994) on Mode 1 and Mode 2 knowledge production also seems to be influencing the conceptualization of professional doctorates (see Lee et al, 2000; Maxwell and Shanahan, 2000; Gallagher, 2000). Within this discussion, Mode 1 knowledge production occurs in the university and academic context, where the discipline holds the prime position in the development of knowledge questions. It is seen as a closed knowledge system, in that academics control systematic knowledge production. By contrast, Mode 2 is seen as a much more open system of knowledge production, where knowledge is produced in the context of application, that is, the workplace, and where the production of knowledge is more varied and less systematic. Knowledge production in Mode 1 sees users of knowledge as passive, compared with their more active and creative role in determining and defining the production of knowledge in the Mode 2 sense. The discussion of Mode 1 and Mode 2 forms of knowledge can be seen to some extent as an artificial delineation similar to the discussions of pure and applied research neat and clear cut in theory but far less clearly delineated in practice. However, the discussion raises important questions and prompts for DBAs, particularly regarding their distinctiveness from PhD or research master s degrees. For example, attempts to introduce portfolios of research can be argued to move away from the PhD model and embrace ideas within the Mode 2 conceptualisation of knowledge production. This discussion is extended by arguments that seek to view professional doctorates as developing a hybrid curriculum (Lee et al, 2000), comprising the overlap between the discipline university context, the profession and the workplace. However, such discussions reflect only a minority of the professional doctorates offered. It should be noted that in two of the largest professions, accounting and engineering, only one doctorate has emerged as an independent university initiative (Maxwell and Shanahan, 2000). Notably in their study of professional doctorates, Trigwell et al (1997) observed that professional doctorates showed some lack of coherence in planning and assessment. Importantly, the study was also critical of the underlying philosophy of many professional doctorate programs. It noted, along with Shanahan (1996), a lack of involvement by external professional bodies in the planning and evaluation of professional doctorates, and the connection of research and coursework to the workplace. While Hallebone and Banerjee (2000) argue in favour of extending stakeholder rather than academic involvement in developing the direction of professional doctorates, Helmes (2000) laments the rigidity of accreditation guidelines which bar the use of innovations such as portfolios in psychology.

8 Interestingly, in a discussion of professional doctorates, Lee et al (2000) analysed two professional doctorates in management which they believed were moving towards a more reflective, practitioner-oriented mode of research education. In one of these, Morley and Priest (1998) comment on the unreceptivity of the DBA cohort towards reflective practice and learning in context within the program itself. They observe the importance students placed on efficiency and clarity in study/work and the need to be task focused. Quite clearly, it would seem that universities offering professional doctorates which move away from conceptualizations of the traditional research program need to clearly communicate epistemological shifts, and hopefully be in advance of professional practitioners in this respect. Importantly too, other writers on the development of DBA programs note the homogenizing effect that definitions of professional doctorates, such as that advocated by the Deans and Directors of Graduate Studies (1998), have upon more radically conceived programs (Hallebone and Banerjee, 2000). Lee et al (2000) argue for a hybrid curriculum incorporating university, profession and workplace to produce what they term a second generation of doctorate. Brennan (1998), following in the postmodern tradition, argues that the professional doctorate is a way for the field to assimilate new forms of practice within existing ordering processes and to change those practices. There is further need to examine whether there are discipline specific needs in the area of doctoral education. Is it that applied fields do in fact have needs that are different from so called pure fields? It would seem that, in the Australian context, this is not the case for engineering and accounting (Maxwell and Shanahan, 2000). On the other hand, it may be that soft applied fields, such as education and management, are more appropriate disciplines for the development of professional doctorates. The large number of professional doctorates within education and management, which combined represent 47 per cent of professional doctorates (Maxwell and Shanahan, 2000), may attest to this. Quality and standards Considerations of quality and standards closely connect to discussions of distinctiveness and purpose within doctoral education. The issue of how the PhD is different from professional doctorates on the one hand and how professional doctorates may not differ from research master s degrees, has been raised above. Evans (1998) argues that the prestige of doctorates could decline unless national standards can be agreed and maintained by universities. She proposes that all doctorates should consist substantially of research training and practice, and be founded on three years of full-time equivalent study after an appropriate honours or Masters degree (1998:7). Variability and concerns for standards have prompted the Council of Australian Deans and Directors of Graduate Studies to set a definition for professional doctorates as a program of research, scholarship and advanced studies which enables candidates to make a significant contribution to knowledge and practice in their professional context". Many would see little difference in this definition of a professional doctorate from that of a PhD. On the other hand, concern over a profusion of qualifications has been raised. In the U.K., working groups have been assembled to discuss the comparability of academic qualifications and the Quality Assurance Agency has been tasked to examine the complex array of postgraduate awards (Gordon, 1999; Thorne, 2000). Writing from a U.S. nursing perspective, Edwardson (2000) notes growing confusion in doctoral education through a muddying of the subtle distinctions originally conceived between PhDs and professional doctorates in nursing. She argues that excellence and integrity are in danger of being compromised. The international doctoral recognition conferred to the PhD award could therefore be seen to be under threat from professional doctorates. There is currently a confusing array and quality of masters programs within Australian universities, and there is some indication that research masters may undergo transformation as an attractive, quick-to-market offering (Gallagher, 2000a: 12). It can be asked: what is a master s degree? And what is a master s degree in relation to a doctorate? Since a master s can now mean so many things, it could be that the value of a master s degree is weakening and an increase in doctoral level study can be expected at its expense. However, the impressive number of professional doctorate offerings are not necessarily an indication of large enrolments. Maxwell and Shanahan (2000) report data that indicate the enrolment viability of many of the DBA programs is in itself problematic, with many professional doctorates having

9 enrolments less than twenty. Ten of these low enrolments are in programs which commenced in the mid 1990 s. Supervision and student attrition The introduction of professional doctorates alongside the PhD raises questions about the overall quality of the doctoral education experience. The quality of supervision for research degree students has been criticized widely over many years (White Paper, 1999; Green Paper 1999; Gallagher, 2000b). Papers and discussion at a recent conference on professional doctorates similarly show that supervision is a major issue in professional doctorates (see e.g. McWilliam and Taylor, 2000; Trigwell, Shannon and Maurizi, 1997). Part of the problem is that supervision is a difficult skill, requiring a reciprocal interaction between student and supervisor that some academics may find difficult. Failure to negotiate this interaction can result in a breakdown of the research and writing process. Another problem connected with supervision is a shortfall of supervisors. Many academics are reluctant to take on more than one or two students, making it difficult for students to find a supervisor. The introduction of enrolment cohorts in some DBA programs and the increased supervision necessitated by multiple smaller projects as in the mixed courses examined above, compound supervision problems. There is pressure to provide sufficient supervisors with research experience in areas relevant to students research projects. It must also be recognised that, relative to coursework students, research students are high maintenance', requiring much more time and effort on the part of their supervisor than other students. These various factors conspire to make the provision of adequate supervision difficult. The view that the introduction of coursework at doctoral level should both speed up and improve completions so far does not seem to be borne out. Indeed, attrition appears to be an issue. Maxwell and Shanahan (2000) argue that their survey of professional doctorates in 1996 and again in 2000 show that non-completion among professional doctoral students may be high. This attrition may have a number of immediate causes, including inadequate supervision and the obvious demands of undertaking research whilst studying either full or part time and working full time. The key to addressing supervision problems would seem to be provision of an adequate support apparatus. With regard to the student, support systems can be put in place to effectively undergird the student s research efforts, helping them to stay the distance and finish their degrees. The need was clearly recognized by the Trigwell et al (1997) study and Neumann and Guthrie (2001) provide an example of such a support system within the doctoral program at Macquarie University. The underlying aims of support structures at Macquarie are threefold. First, they are intended to help the student keep on track in his or her thesis writing, providing self and public recognition, and making the thesis writing experience as straightforward as possible. Second, they are intended to make the thesis research and writing experience less lonely and stressful by creating a helpful learning community of other DBA students. Third, they are intended to provide real ideal models, such as students who completed their thesis in minimum time, or those who have found ways of taming the tyranny of time. Fourth, they are intended to raise the profile of the DBA in the wider community. The importance of public relations, communication of program objectives and overall marketing cannot be understated. The Future The discussion above sets out an important research agenda for considering the DBA and other professional doctorates. The rapid growth of the DBA and the variation illustrated in this paper in program structure among host universities underscore the importance of these questions. Issues include: * Offering an appropriate curriculum and format for professional doctorates, which target practitioners rather than academics, and, which differentiates them from the PhD on the one hand and especially from research master s on the other.

10 Ensuring that the research component is at a doctoral level and has a primary role within a professional doctorate. Ensuring that there is a quality assurance procedure so that there is equivalence of standard with the PhD. Structuring support systems to facilitate student completion. Providing marketing support to create awareness of the benefits of professional doctorates for practitioners. Securing funding, whether full-fee, HECS or HECS exempt, or a mix thereof, to afford a sustainable, continuous program. We believe that these issues are fundamental to the success of professional doctorates and indeed, that they go beyond professional doctorates and are relevant to all doctoral education. References Blume, Stuart. (1995). Problems and Prospects of Research Training in the 1990s. In: OECD. Research Training Present and Future. Paris: OECD. p Bourner, T. Bowden, R. and Laing, 5. (2000). The adoption of professional doctorates in English universities: Why here? Why now? Paper presented at the Third Biennial International Conference on Professional Doctorates, Doctoral Education and Professional Practice: the Next Generation?, Armidale, September, Brennan, Marie. (1998). Struggles over the definition and practice of the educational doctorate in Australia. Australian Educational Researcher, 25, 1, Brine, J. (2000). Defining an appropriate range of learning opportunities for an outward looking PhD. Paper presented at the 3rd Biennial International Conference on Professional Doctorates, Doctoral Education and Professional Practice: The Next Generation, Armidale, September, Council of Australian Deans and Directors of Graduate Studies. (1998). Guidelines: Professional Doctorates. Council of Australian Deans and Directors of Graduate Studies, June Edwardson, S. (2000). Professional vs. research doctorates in nursing. Paper presented at the 3rd Biennial International Conference on Professional Doctorates, Doctoral Education and Professional Practice: The Next Generation, Armidale, September, Elliott, G. R. (1998). Australian Management Research: Prospects for the New Millennium Journal of the Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management Vol 4 No 2 p Evans, B. (1998). A Dean s Eye View of the PhD in the Year In: Kiley, M and Mullins, G (Eds) Quality in Postgraduate Research: Managing the Agenda. Proceedings of the 1998 Quality in Postgraduate Research Conference, Adelaide, April 23-24, p Gallagher, M (2000a). New Directions in Australian Research and Research Training Policy Some Questions for Researchers. Paper prepared for the annual conference of The Australian Network for Higher Education Policy Research, Australian National University, Canberra, 7-8 December, Gallagher, M (2000b). The Challenges Facing Higher Education Research Training. In: Kiley, M and Mullins, G (Eds) Quality in Postgraduate Research; Making Ends Meet. Adelaide, The University of Adelaide. pp

11 Gibbons, M.; Limoges, C; Nowotny, H; Schwartzman, 5; Scott, P and Trow, M. (1994) The new production of knowledge: the dynamics of science and research in contemporary societies. London: Sage. Goldstein, S. G. (1969) The Victoria Institute of Colleges: an inquiry, The Australian Journal of Education, 13, Hallebone, E. and Banerjee, B. (2000). DBA highlights (and lowlights): Reflections of the first intake on graduation. Paper presented at the 3rd Biennial International Conference on Professional Doctorates, Doctoral Education and Professional Practice: The Next Generation, Armidale, September, Helmes, E. (2000). Professional doctoral degrees in psychology in Australia: Prospects and constraints. Paper presented at the 3rd Biennial International Conference on Professional Doctorates, Doctoral Education and Professional Practice: The Next Generation", Armidale, September, Lee, A.; Green, B. and Brennan, M. (2000). Organisational knowledge, professional practice and the professional doctorate at work. In: Carrick, John and Rhodes, Carl. (Eds). Research and Knowledge at Work: Perspectives, Case Studies and Innovative Strategies. London and New York: Routledge. p McWilliam, E. and Taylor, P. (2000). Reconciling rapidity and rigour: Strategies and structures for the next generation of professional doctorates. Paper presented at the 3rd Biennial International Conference on Professional Doctorates, Doctoral Education and Professional Practice: The Next Generation", Armidale, September, Maxwell, T. W. and Shanahan, P. J. (2000). Current issues in professional doctoral education in Australia and New Zealand. Paper presented at the Third International Conference on Professional Doctorates, Doctoral Education and Professional Practice: the Next Generation?, Armidale, September, MGSM. (2000) Doctor of Business Administration, MGSM Brochure. May 2000, Macquarie University. Morely, C. and Priest, J. (1998). RMIT reflects on its Doctor of Business Administration program. In: Maxwell, T. and Shanahan, P. (Eds.) Professional Doctorates: Innovations in teaching and research. Proceedings of the conference entitled Professional doctorates: innovations in teaching and research, Coffs Harbour, 8-l0 July, Faculty of Education, Health and Professional Studies, The University of New England: Armidale. p NBEET (National Board of Employment, Education and Training). (1989). Review of Australian Graduate Studies and Higher Degrees. Canberra: NBEET. NBEET (National Board of Employment, Education and Training). (1990). Higher Education Courses and Graduate Studies. Canberra: NBEET. Neumann, R. (1993). Research and scholarship: perceptions of senior academic administrators. Higher Education, 25, Neumann, R. and Guthrie, J. (2001). Quality Enhancement in Doctoral Education: Developing a More Public Process. In: Journal of the Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management, Vol. 7, No. 1,2001 p Noble, K. A. (1994). Changing Doctoral Degrees: An international perspective. Buckingham: Open University Press. OECD (1995). Research Training Present and Future. Paris: OECD. Shanahan, P. J. (1996). Professional Doctorates Other Than the Doctor of Education in Australian Universities: Some comparative data. In: Maxwell, T. W. and Shanahan, P. J. (Eds) Which Way for

12 Professional Doctorates: Context and Cases. Proceedings of the Which way for professional doctorates conference. Steering Committee Strategic Review of Management. (1997). Management Research in Australia. Canberra: Australian Research Council. Thorne, L. (2000). Customising high level professional learning: the rigor, relevance and outcomes of doctorates. Paper presented at the Third International Conference on Professional Doctorates, Doctoral Education and Professional Practice: the Next Generation?", Armidale, September, Trigwell, K.; Shannon, T. and Maurizi, R. (1997). Research-Coursework Doctoral Programmes In Australian Universities. Footnotes [1] HECS (the Higher Education Contribution Scheme) provides government funding to the institution on behalf of the student. Part of this amount is then repaid by the student, either up front or via the taxation system. [2] Administration includes the Business Administration and Public Policy Administration areas. The DBA comprises most of the offerings. [3] In the main, program brochures comprise the documentary sources. [4] Mike Goldstein was until very recently Director of the DBA program at MGSM. Prior to that he was a visiting scholar at The Chinese University of Hong Kong and Head of the Department of Management at The University of Western Australia. [5] DETYA 2001 statistics show that since 1990 the annual number of Business Studies graduates has increased by 174.9%, while graduates from other fields have increased by 51.5%.