Benzodiazepines How They Work & How to Withdraw

Transcription

1 School of Neurosciences Division of Psychiatry The Royal Victoria Infirmary Queen Victoria Road Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP Benzodiazepines How They Work & How to Withdraw Medical research information from a benzodiazepine withdrawal clinic BY PROFESSOR C HEATHER ASHTON, DM, FRCP PROTOCOL FOR THE TREATMENT OF BENZODIAZEPINE WITHDRAWAL Revised Edition August 2002

2 FOREWORD 2001 These chapters were written by request in 1999 for readers in the USA concerned about the problems associated with long-term benzodiazepine use. Inquiries from Canada, Australia and the UK have suggested that the advice in the manual might be of help to a wider audience. Accordingly, some additions have now been made, particularly for readers in the UK. A limited list of benzodiazepines that can be prescribed on the National Health Service was introduced in the UK in These include diazepam, chlordiazepoxide, lorazepam and oxazepam for anxiety; nitrazepam and temazepam for insomnia. Triazolam was originally on the list but was later withdrawn. Other sleeping pills now available on the NHS include the benzodiazepines loprazolam and lormetazepam and two drugs, zopiclone and zolpidem, which although not benzodiazepines, act in the same way and have the same adverse effects including dependence and withdrawal reactions. Information about benzodiazepines not included in the first US edition, and suggested withdrawal schedules for chlordiazepoxide, oxazepam and zopiclone have been added here. Unfortunately, the benzodiazepine saga is far from over. Despite the fact that benzodiazepines are only recommended for short-term use, there are still about half a million long-term benzodiazepine users in the UK who have often been prescribed benzodiazepines for years. Many of these people have problems with adverse effects including dependence and withdrawal reactions, for which they receive little advice or support. The problem is even greater in countries (Greece, India, South America and others) where benzodiazepines are available over the counter. Because of widespread prescribing and easy availability, benzodiazepines have now, in addition, entered the drug scene. They are taken illicitly in high doses by 90% of polydrug abusers world-wide, unleashing new and dangerous effects (AIDS, hepatitis, and risks to the next generation) which were undreamt of when they were introduced into medicine as a harmless panacea nearly 50 years ago. I hope this booklet will provide information of value to benzodiazepine users unable to find advice elsewhere and perhaps raise awareness in the medical profession about the dangers of excessive or long-term benzodiazepine prescribing. The main credit for any use this monograph may be should go to Geraldine Burns in the USA, Rand M Bard in Canada, and Ray Nimmo and Carol Packer in the UK for their energy, enthusiasm and expertise in producing and distributing this booklet and making it available to people on the Internet throughout the world. FOREWORD TO REVISED EDITION August 2002 Heather Ashton January 2001 This edition contains some new material which I have added in response to requests and queries from readers in many countries including Europe, North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and India. Additions include further information about withdrawal of antidepressant drugs, some advice for older or "elderly" people, and a mention of complementary, non-drug, techniques helpful in benzodiazepine withdrawal. There is also an epilogue outlining areas where further action about benzodiazepines - education, research and facilities for long-term users - is urgently needed. I am glad that this monograph has been helpful to people all over the world and am grateful for the many thanks I have received. I hope also that it will encourage professionals and others to undertake properly controlled trials aimed at improving the management of benzodiazepine withdrawal. This booklet is surely not the last word on the subject. Heather Ashton, Newcastle upon Tyne August

3 Professor C Heather Ashton, DM, FRCP Chrystal Heather Ashton DM, FRCP is Emeritus Professor of Clinical Psycho-pharmacology at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, England. Professor Ashton is a graduate of the University of Oxford and obtained a First Class Honours Degree (BA) in Physiology in She qualified in Medicine (BM, BCh, MA) in 1954 and gained a postgraduate Doctor of Medicine (DM) in She qualified as MRCP (Member of the Royal College of Physicians, London) in 1958 and was elected FRCP (Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, London) in She also became National Health Service Consultant in Clinical Psychopharmacology in 1975 and National Health Service Consultant in Psychiatry in She has worked at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne as researcher (Lecturer, Senior Lecturer, Reader and Professor) and clinician since 1965, first in the Department of Pharmacology and latterly in the Department of Psychiatry. Her research has centred, and continues, on the effects of psychotropic drugs (nicotine, cannabis, benzodiazepines, antidepressants and others) on the brain and behaviour in man. Her main clinical work was in running a benzodiazepine withdrawal clinic for 12 years from She is at present involved with the North East Council for Addictions (NECA) of which she is former Vice- Chairman of the Executive Committee on which she still serves. She continues to give advice on benzodiazepine problems to counsellors and is patron of the Bristol & District Tranquilliser Project. She was generic expert in the UK benzodiazepine litigation in the 1980s and has been involved with the UK organisation Victims of Tranquillisers (VOT). She has submitted evidence about benzodiazepines to the House of Commons Health Select Committee. She has published approximately 250 papers in professional journals, books and chapters in books on psychotropic drugs of which over 50 concern benzodiazepines. She has given evidence to various Government committees on tobacco smoking, cannabis and benzodiazepines and has given invited lectures on benzodiazepines in the UK, Australia, Sweden, Switzerland and other countries. Professor Ashton may be contacted at: Department of Psychiatry Royal Victoria Infirmary Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 4LP England UK SUMMARY OF CONTENTS This monograph contains information about the effects that benzodiazepines have on the brain and body and how these actions are exerted. Detailed suggestions on how to withdraw after long-term use and individual tapering schedules for different benzodiazepines are provided. Withdrawal symptoms, acute and protracted, are described along with an explanation of why they may occur and how to cope with them. The overall message is that most long-term benzodiazepine users who wish to can withdraw successfully and become happier and healthier as a result. 3

4 CHAPTER I. THE BENZODIAZEPINES: WHAT THEY DO IN THE BODY Background About this chapter The benzodiazepines Potency Speed of elimination Duration of effects Therapeutic actions of benzodiazepines Mechanisms of action Adverse effects of benzodiazepines Oversedation Drug interactions Memory impairment Paradoxical stimulant effects Depression, emotional blunting Adverse effects in the elderly Adverse effects in pregnancy Tolerance Dependence Therapeutic dose dependence Prescribed high dose dependence Recreational benzodiazepine abuse Socioeconomic costs of long-term benzodiazepine use Further reading Table 1. Benzodiazepines and similar drugs Table 2. Therapeutic actions of benzodiazepines Table 3. Some socioeconomic costs of long-term benzodiazepine use Fig. 1. Diagram of mechanism of action of the natural neurotransmitter GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) and benzodiazepine on nerve cells (neurons) in the brain 4

5 CHAPTER I THE BENZODIAZEPINES: WHAT THEY DO IN THE BODY BACKGROUND For twelve years ( ) I ran a Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Clinic for people wanting to come off their tranquillisers and sleeping pills. Much of what I know about this subject was taught to me by those brave and long-suffering men and women. By listening to the histories of over 300 "patients" and by closely following their progress (week-by-week and sometimes day-by-day), I gradually learned what long-term benzodiazepine use and subsequent withdrawal entails. Most of the people attending the clinic had been taking benzodiazepines prescribed by their doctors for many years, sometimes over 20 years. They wished to stop because they did not feel well. They realised that the drugs, though effective when first prescribed, might now be actually making them feel ill. They had many symptoms, both physical and mental. Some were depressed and/or anxious; some had "irritable bowel", cardiac or neurological complaints. Many had undergone hospital investigations with full gastrointestinal, cardiological and neurological screens (nearly always with negative results). A number had been told (wrongly) that they had multiple sclerosis. Several had lost their jobs through recurrent illnesses. The experiences of these patients have since been confirmed in many studies, by thousands of patients attending tranquilliser support groups in the UK and other parts of Europe, and by individuals vainly seeking help in the US. It is interesting that the patients themselves, and not the medical profession, were the first to realise that long-term use of benzodiazepines can cause problems. ABOUT THIS CHAPTER Some readers may decide to turn directly to the chapter on benzodiazepine withdrawal (Chapter II). However, those who wish to understand withdrawal symptoms and techniques (and therefore to cope better with the withdrawal process) are advised to become acquainted first with what benzodiazepines do in the body, how they work, how the body adjusts to chronic use, and why withdrawal symptoms occur. These issues are discussed in this chapter. THE BENZODIAZEPINES Potency. A large number of benzodiazepines are available (Table 1). There are major differences in potency between different benzodiazepines, so that equivalent doses vary as much as 20-fold. For example, 0.5 milligrams (mg) of alprazolam (Xanax) is approximately equivalent to 10mg of diazepam (Valium). Thus a person on 6mg of alprazolam daily, a dose not uncommonly prescribed in the US, is taking the equivalent of about 120mg of diazepam, a very high dose. These differences in strength have not always been fully appreciated by doctors, and some would not agree with the equivalents given here. Nevertheless, people on potent benzodiazepines such as alprazolam, lorazepam (Ativan) or clonazepam (Klonopin) tend to be using relatively large doses. This difference in potency is important when switching from one benzodiazepine to another, for example changing to diazepam during the withdrawal, as described in the next chapter. Speed of elimination. Benzodiazepines also differ markedly in the speed at which they are metabolised (in the liver) and eliminated from the body (in the urine) (Table 1). For example, the "half-life" (time taken for the blood concentration to fall to half its initial value after a single dose) for triazolam (Halcion) is only 2-5 hours, while the half-life of diazepam is hours, and that of an active metabolite of diazepam (desmethyldiazepam) is hours. This means that half the active products of diazepam are still in the bloodstream up to 200 hours after a single dose. Clearly, with repeated daily dosing accumulation occurs and high concentrations can build up in the body (mainly in fatty tissues). As Table 1 shows, there is a considerable variation between individuals in the rate at which they metabolise benzodiazepines. 5

6 Benzodiazepines Table 1. BENZODIAZEPINES AND SIMILAR DRUGS 5 Half-life (hrs)¹ [active metabolite] Market² Aim Approximately Equivalent Oral dosages (mg)³ Alprazolam (Xanax) 6-12 a 0.5 Bromazepam (Lexotan) a 5-6 Chlordiazepoxide (Librium) 5-30 [36-200] a 25 Clonazepam (Klonopin) a,e 0.5 Clorazepate (Tranxene) [36-200] a 15 Diazepam (Valium) [36-200] a 10 Estazolam (ProSom) h 1-2 Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) [36-200] h 1 Flurazepam (Dalmane) [ h Halazepam (Paxipam) [30-100] a 20 Lorazepam (Ativan) a 1 Nitrazepam (Mogadon) h 10 Oxazepam (Serax) 4-15 a 20 Prazepam (Centrax) [36-200] a Quazepam (Doral) h 20 Temazepam (Restoril) 8-22 h 20 Triazolam (Halcion) 2 h 0.5 Non-benzodiazepines with similar effects 4 Zaleplon (Sonata) 2 h 20 Zolpidem (Ambien) 2 h 20 Zopiclone (Zimovane, Imovane) 5-6 h Half-life: time taken for blood concentration to fall to half its peak value after a single dose. Half-life of active metabolite shown in square brackets. This time may vary considerably between individuals. 2. Market aim: although all benzodiazepines have similar actions, they are usually marketed as anxiolytics (a), hypnotics (h) or anticonvulsants (e). 3. These equivalents do not agree with those used by some authors. They are firmly based on clinical experience but may vary between individuals. 4. These drugs are chemically different from benzodiazepines but have the same effects on the body and act by the same mechanisms. 5. All these drugs are recommended for short-term use only (2-4 weeks maximum). Duration of effects. The speed of elimination of a benzodiazepine is obviously important in determining the duration of its effects. However, the duration of apparent action is usually considerably less than the half-life. With most benzodiazepines, noticeable effects usually wear off within a few hours. Nevertheless the drugs, as long as they are present, continue to exert subtle effects within the body. These effects may become apparent during continued use or may appear as withdrawal symptoms when dosage is reduced or the drug is stopped. Therapeutic actions of benzodiazepines. Regardless of their potency, speed of elimination or duration of effects, the actions in the body are virtually the same for all benzodiazepines. This is true whether they are marketed as anxiolytics, hypnotics or anti-convulsants (Table 1). All benzodiazepines exert five major effects which are used therapeutically: anxiolytic, hypnotic, muscle relaxant, anticonvulsant and amnesic (impairment of memory) (Table 2). 6

7 Table 2. THERAPEUTIC ACTIONS OF BENZODIAZEPINES (IN SHORT-TERM USE) Action Clinical Use Anxiolytic - relief of anxiety - Anxiety and panic disorders, phobias Hypnotic - promotion of sleep - Insomnia Myorelaxant - muscle relaxation - Muscle spasms, spastic disorders Anticonvulsant - stop fits, convulsions - Fits due to drug poisoning, some forms of epilepsy Amnesia - impair short-term memory - Premedication for operations, sedation for minor surgical procedures Other clinical uses, utilising combined effects: Alcohol detoxification Acute psychosis with hyperexcitability and aggressiveness These actions, exerted by different benzodiazepines in slightly varying degrees, confer on the drugs some useful medicinal properties. Few drugs can compete with them in efficacy, rapid onset of action and low acute toxicity. In short-term use, benzodiazepines can be valuable, sometimes even life-saving, across a wide range of clinical conditions as shown in Table 2. Nearly all the disadvantages of benzodiazepines result from long-term use (regular use for more than a few weeks). The UK Committee on Safety of Medicines in 1988 recommended that benzodiazepines should in general be reserved for short-term use (2-4 weeks only). Mechanisms of action. Anyone struggling to get off their benzodiazepines will be aware that the drugs have profound effects on the mind and body apart from the therapeutic actions. Directly or indirectly, benzodiazepines in fact influence almost every aspect of brain function. For those interested to know how and why, a short explanation follows of the mechanisms through which benzodiazepines are able to exert such widespread effects. All benzodiazepines act by enhancing the actions of a natural brain chemical, GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid). GABA is a neurotransmitter, an agent which transmits messages from one brain cell (neuron) to another. The message that GABA transmits is an inhibitory one: it tells the neurons that it contacts to slow down or stop firing. Since about 40% of the millions of neurons all over the brain respond to GABA, this means that GABA has a general quietening influence on the brain: it is in some ways the body's natural hypnotic and tranquilliser. This natural action of GABA is augmented by benzodiazepines which thus exert an extra (often excessive) inhibitory influence on neurons (Fig.1). 7

8 Fig. 1. Diagram of mechanism of action of the natural neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) and benzodiazepines on nerve cells (neurons) in the brain (1,2) Nerve impulse causes release of GABA from storage sites on neuron 1 (3) GABA released into space between neurons (4) GABA reacts with receptors on neuron 2; the reaction allows chloride ions (CI ) to enter the neuron (5) This effect inhibits further progress of the nerve impulse (6,7) Benzodiazepines react with booster site on GABA receptors (8) This action enhances the inhibitory effects of GABA; the ongoing nerve impulse may be completely blocked 8

9 The way in which GABA sends its inhibitory message is by a clever electronic device. Its reaction with special sites (GABA-receptors) on the outside of the receiving neuron opens a channel, allowing negatively charged particles (chloride ions) to pass to the inside of the neuron. These negative ions "supercharge" the neuron making it less responsive to other neurotransmitters which would normally excite it. Benzodiazepines also react at their own special sites (benzodiazepine receptors), situated actually on the GABA-receptor. Combination of a benzodiazepine at this site acts as a booster to the actions of GABA, allowing more chloride ions to enter the neuron, making it even more resistant to excitation. Various subtypes of benzodiazepine receptors have slightly different actions. One subtype (alpha 1) is responsible for sedative effects, another (alpha 2) for anti-anxiety effects, and both alpha 1 and alpha 2, as well as alpha 5, for anticonvulsant effects. All benzodiazepines combine, to a greater or lesser extent, with all these subtypes and all enhance GABA activity in the brain. As a consequence of the enhancement of GABA's inhibitory activity caused by benzodiazepines, the brain's output of excitatory neurotransmitters, including norepinephrine (noradrenaline), serotonin, acetyl choline and dopamine, is reduced. Such excitatory neurotransmitters are necessary for normal alertness, memory, muscle tone and co-ordination, emotional responses, endocrine gland secretions, heart rate and blood pressure control and a host of other functions, all of which may be impaired by benzodiazepines. Other benzodiazepine receptors, not linked to GABA, are present in the kidney, colon, blood cells and adrenal cortex and these may also be affected by some benzodiazepines. These direct and indirect actions are responsible for the well-known adverse effects of dosage with benzodiazepines. ADVERSE EFFECTS OF BENZODIAZEPINES Oversedation. Oversedation is a dose-related extension of the sedative/hypnotic effects of benzodiazepines. Symptoms include drowsiness, poor concentration, incoordination, muscle weakness, dizziness and mental confusion. When benzodiazepines are taken at night as sleeping pills, sedation may persist the next day as "hangover effects, particularly with slowly eliminated preparations (Table 1). However, tolerance to the sedative effects usually develops over a week or two and anxious patients taking benzodiazepines during the day rarely complain of sleepiness although fine judgement and some memory functions may still be impaired. Oversedation persists longer and is more marked in the elderly and may contribute to falls and fractures. Acute confusional states have occurred in the elderly even after small doses of benzodiazepines. Oversedation from benzodiazepines contributes to accidents at home and at work and studies from many countries have shown a significant association between the use of benzodiazepines and the risk of serious traffic accidents. People taking benzodiazepines should be warned of the risks of driving and of operating machinery. Drug interactions. Benzodiazepines have additive effects with other drugs with sedative actions including other hypnotics, some antidepressants (e.g. amitriptyline [Elavil], doxepin [Adapin, Sinequan]), major tranquillisers or neuroleptics (e.g. prochlorperazine [Compazine], trifluoperazine [Stelazine]), anticonvulsants (e.g. phenobarbital, phenytoin [Dilantin], carbamazepine [Atretol, Tegretol]), sedative antihistamines (e.g. diphenhydramine [Benadryl], promethazine [Phenergan]), opiates (heroin, morphine, meperidine), and, importantly, alcohol. Patients taking benzodiazepines should be warned of these interactions. If sedative drugs are taken in overdose, benzodiazepines may add to the risk of fatality. Memory impairment. Benzodiazepines have long been known to cause amnesia, an effect which is utilised when the drugs are used as premedication before major surgery or for minor surgical procedures. Loss of memory for unpleasant events is a welcome effect in these circumstances. For this purpose, fairly large single doses are employed and a short-acting benzodiazepine (e.g. midazolam) may be given intravenously. Oral doses of benzodiazepines in the dosage range used for insomnia or anxiety can also cause memory impairment. Acquisition of new information is deficient, partly because of lack of concentration and attention. In addition, the drugs cause a specific deficit in "episodic" memory, the remembering of recent events, the circumstances in which they occurred, and their sequence in time. By contrast, other memory functions (memory for words, ability to remember a telephone number for a few seconds, and recall of long-term memories) are not impaired. Impairment of episodic memory may occasionally lead to memory lapses or "blackouts". It is claimed that in some instances such memory lapses may be responsible for uncharacteristic behaviours such as shop-lifting. 9

10 Benzodiazepines are often prescribed for acute stress-related reactions. At the time they may afford relief from the distress of catastrophic disasters, but if used for more than a few days they may prevent the normal psychological adjustment to such trauma. In the case of loss or bereavement they may inhibit the grieving process which may remain unresolved for many years. In other anxiety states, including panic disorder and agoraphobia, benzodiazepines may inhibit the learning of alternative stress-coping strategies, including cognitive behavioural treatment. Paradoxical stimulant effects. Benzodiazepines occasionally cause paradoxical excitement with increased anxiety, insomnia, nightmares, hallucinations at the onset of sleep, irritability, hyperactive or aggressive behaviour, and exacerbation of seizures in epileptics. Attacks of rage and violent behaviour, including assault (and even homicide), have been reported, particularly after intravenous administration but also after oral administration. Less dramatic increases in irritability and argumentativeness are much more common and are frequently remarked upon by patients or by their families. Such reactions are similar to those sometimes provoked by alcohol. They are most frequent in anxious and aggressive individuals, children, and the elderly. They may be due to release or inhibition of behavioural tendencies normally suppressed by social restraints. Cases of "baby-battering", wife-beating and "grandma-bashing" have been attributed to benzodiazepines. Depression, emotional blunting. Long-term benzodiazepine users, like alcoholics and barbituratedependent patients, are often depressed, and the depression may first appear during prolonged benzodiazepine use. Benzodiazepines may both cause and aggravate depression, possibly by reducing the brain's output of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). However, anxiety and depression often co-exist and benzodiazepines are frequently prescribed for mixed anxiety and depression. Sometimes the drugs seem to precipitate suicidal tendencies in such patients. Of the first 50 of the patients attending my withdrawal clinic (reported in 1987), ten had taken drug overdoses requiring hospital admission while on chronic benzodiazepine medication; only two of these had a history of depressive illness before they were prescribed benzodiazepines. The depression lifted in these patients after benzodiazepine withdrawal and none took further overdoses during the 10 months to 3.5 years followup period after withdrawal. In 1988 the Committee on Safety of Medicines in the UK recommended that "benzodiazepines should not be used alone to treat depression or anxiety associated with depression. Suicide may be precipitated in such patients". "Emotional anaesthesia", the inability to feel pleasure or pain, is a common complaint of long-term benzodiazepine users. Such emotional blunting is probably related to the inhibitory effect of benzodiazepines on activity in emotional centres in the brain. Former long-term benzodiazepine users often bitterly regret their lack of emotional responses to family members - children and spouses or partners - during the period when they were taking the drugs. Chronic benzodiazepine use can be a cause of domestic disharmony and even marriage break-up. Adverse effects in the elderly. Older people are more sensitive than younger people to the central nervous system depressant effects of benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines can cause confusion, night wandering, amnesia, ataxia (loss of balance), hangover effects and pseudodementia (sometimes wrongly attributed to Alzheimer s disease) in the elderly and should be avoided wherever possible. Increased sensitivity to benzodiazepines in older people is partly because they metabolise drugs less efficiently than younger people, so that drug effects last longer and drug accumulation readily occurs with regular use. However, even at the same blood concentration, the depressant effects of benzodiazepines are greater in the elderly, possibly because they have fewer brain cells and less reserve brain capacity than younger people. For these reasons, it is generally advised that, if benzodiazepines are used in the elderly, dosage should be half that recommended for adults, and use (as for adults) should be short-term (2 weeks) only. In addition, benzodiazepines without active metabolites (e.g. oxazepam [Serax], temazepam [Restoril]) are tolerated better than those with slowly eliminated metabolites (e.g. chlordiazepoxide [Librium], nitrazepam [Mogadon]). Equivalent potencies of different benzodiazepines are approximately the same in older as in younger people (Table 1). Adverse effects in pregnancy. Benzodiazepines cross the placenta, and if taken regularly by the mother in late pregnancy, even in therapeutic doses, can cause neonatal complications. The foetus and neonate metabolise benzodiazepines very slowly, and appreciable concentrations may persist in the infant up to two weeks after birth, resulting in the "floppy infant syndrome" of lax muscles, oversedation, and failure to 10

11 suckle. Withdrawal symptoms may develop after about two weeks with hyperexcitability, high-pitched crying and feeding difficulties. Benzodiazepines in therapeutic doses appear to carry little risk of causing major congenital malformations. However, chronic maternal use may impair foetal intrauterine growth and retard brain development. There is increasing concern that such children in later life may be prone to attention deficit disorder, hyperactivity, learning difficulties, and a spectrum of autistic disorders. Tolerance. Tolerance to many of the effects of benzodiazepines develops with regular use: the original dose of the drug has progressively less effect and a higher dose is required to obtain the original effect. This has often led doctors to increase the dosage in their prescriptions or to add another benzodiazepine so that some patients have ended up taking two benzodiazepines at once. However, tolerance to the various actions of benzodiazepines develops at variable rates and to different degrees. Tolerance to the hypnotic effects develops rapidly and sleep recordings have shown that sleep patterns, including deep sleep (slow wave sleep) and dreaming (which are initially suppressed by benzodiazepines), return to pre-treatment levels after a few weeks of regular benzodiazepine use. Similarly, daytime users of the drugs for anxiety no longer feel sleepy after a few days. Tolerance to the anxiolytic effects develops more slowly but there is little evidence that benzodiazepines retain their effectiveness after a few months. In fact long-term benzodiazepine use may even aggravate anxiety disorders. Many patients find that anxiety symptoms gradually increase over the years despite continuous benzodiazepine use, and panic attacks and agoraphobia may appear for the first time after years of chronic use. Such worsening of symptoms during long-term benzodiazepine use is probably due to the development of tolerance to the anxiolytic effects, so that "withdrawal" symptoms emerge even in the continued presence of the drugs. However, tolerance may not be complete and chronic users sometimes report continued efficacy, which may be partly due to suppression of withdrawal effects. Nevertheless, in most cases such symptoms gradually disappear after successful tapering and withdrawal of benzodiazepines. Among the first 50 patients attending my clinic, 10 patients became agoraphobic for the first time while taking benzodiazepines. Agoraphobic symptoms abated dramatically within a year of withdrawal, even in patients who had been housebound, and none were incapacitated by agoraphobia at the time of follow-up (10 months to 3.5 years after withdrawal). Tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects of benzodiazepines makes them generally unsuitable for long-term control of epilepsy. Tolerance to the motor effects of benzodiazepines can develop to a remarkable degree so that people on very large doses may be able to ride a bicycle and play ball games. However, complete tolerance to the effects on memory and cognition does not seem to occur. Many studies show that these functions remain impaired in chronic users, recovering slowly, though sometimes incompletely, after withdrawal. Tolerance is a phenomenon that develops with many chronically used drugs (including alcohol, heroin and morphine and cannabis). The body responds to the continued presence of the drug with a series of adjustments that tend to overcome the drug effects. In the case of benzodiazepines, compensatory changes occur in the GABA and benzodiazepine receptors which become less responsive, so that the inhibitory actions of GABA and benzodiazepines are decreased. At the same time there are changes in the secondary systems controlled by GABA so that the activity of excitatory neurotransmitters tends to be restored. Tolerance to different effects of benzodiazepines may vary between individuals - probably as a result of differences in intrinsic neurological and chemical make-up which are reflected in personality characteristics and susceptibility to stress. The development of tolerance is one of the reasons people become dependent on benzodiazepines, and also sets the scene for the withdrawal syndrome, described in the next chapter. Dependence. Benzodiazepines are potentially addictive drugs: psychological and physical dependence can develop within a few weeks or months of regular or repeated use. There are several overlapping types of benzodiazepine dependence. Therapeutic dose dependence. People who have become dependent on therapeutic doses of benzodiazepines usually have several of the following characteristics. 11

12 1. They have taken benzodiazepines in prescribed "therapeutic" (usually low) doses for months or years. 2. They have gradually become to "need" benzodiazepines to carry out normal, day-to-day activities. 3. They have continued to take benzodiazepines although the original indication for prescription has disappeared. 4. They have difficulty in stopping the drug, or reducing dosage, because of withdrawal symptoms. 5. If on short-acting benzodiazepines (Table 1) they develop anxiety symptoms between doses, or get craving for the next dose. 6. They contact their doctor regularly to obtain repeat prescriptions. 7. They become anxious if the next prescription is not readily available; they may carry their tablets around with them and may take an extra dose before an anticipated stressful event or a night in a strange bed. 8. They may have increased the dosage since the original prescription. 9. They may have anxiety symptoms, panics, agoraphobia, insomnia, depression and increasing physical symptoms despite continuing to take benzodiazepines. The number of people world-wide who are taking prescribed benzodiazepines is enormous. For example, in the US nearly 11 per cent of a large population surveyed in 1990 reported some benzodiazepine use the previous year. About 2 per cent of the adult population of the US (around 4 million people) appear to have used prescribed benzodiazepine hypnotics or tranquillisers regularly for 5 to 10 years or more. Similar figures apply in the UK, over most of Europe and in some Asian countries. A high proportion of these longterm users must be, at least to some degree, dependent. Exactly how many are dependent is not clear; it depends to some extent on how dependence is defined. However, many studies have shown that per cent of long-term users have difficulty in stopping benzodiazepines because of withdrawal symptoms, which are described in Chapter III. Prescribed high dose dependence. A minority of patients who start on prescribed benzodiazepines begin to "require" larger and larger doses. At first they may persuade their doctors to escalate the size of prescriptions, but on reaching the prescriber's limits, may contact several doctors or hospital departments to obtain further supplies which they self-prescribe. Sometimes this group combines benzodiazepine misuse with excessive alcohol consumption. Patients in this group tend to be highly anxious, depressed and may have personality difficulties. They may have a history of other sedative or alcohol misuse. They do not typically use illicit drugs but may obtain "street benzodiazepines if other sources fail. Recreational benzodiazepine abuse. Recreational use of benzodiazepines is a growing problem. A large proportion (30-90 per cent) of polydrug abusers world-wide also use benzodiazepines. Benzodiazepines are used in this context to increase the "kick" obtained from illicit drugs, particularly opiates, and to alleviate the withdrawal symptoms of other drugs of abuse (opiates, barbiturates, cocaine, amphetamines and alcohol). People who have been given benzodiazepines during alcohol detoxification sometimes become dependent on benzodiazepines and may abuse illicitly obtained benzodiazepines as well as relapsing into alcohol use. Occasionally high doses of benzodiazepines are used alone to obtain a "high". Recreational use of diazepam, alprazolam, lorazepam, temazepam, triazolam, flunitrazepam and others has been reported in various countries. Usually the drugs are taken orally, often in doses much greater than those used therapeutically (e.g.100mg diazepam or equivalent daily) but some users inject benzodiazepines intravenously. These high dose users develop a high degree of tolerance to benzodiazepines and, although they may use the drugs intermittently, some become dependent. Detoxification of these patients may present difficulties since withdrawal reactions can be severe and include convulsions. The present population of recreational users may be relatively small, perhaps one tenth of that of long-term prescribed therapeutic dose users, but probably amounts to some hundreds of thousands in the US and 12

13 Western Europe, and appears to be increasing. It is a chastening thought that medical overprescription of benzodiazepines, resulting in their presence in many households, made them easily available and undoubtedly aided their entry into the illicit drug scene. Present sources for illicit users are forged prescriptions, theft from drug stores, or illegal imports. Socio-economic costs of long-term benzodiazepine use. The socio-economic costs of the present high level of long-term benzodiazepine use are considerable, although difficult to quantify. Most of these have been mentioned above and are summarised in Table 3. These consequences could be minimised if prescriptions for long-term benzodiazepines were decreased. Yet many doctors continue to prescribe benzodiazepines and patients wishing to withdraw receive little advice or support on how to go about it. The following chapter gives practical information on withdrawal which, it is hoped, will be of use both to long-term benzodiazepine users and to their physicians. TABLE 3. SOME SOCIOECONOMIC COSTS OF LONG-TERM BENZODIAZEPINE USE 1. Increased risk of accidents - traffic, home, work. 2. Increased risk of fatality from overdose if combined with other drugs. 3. Increased risk of attempted suicide, especially in depression. 4. Increased risk of aggressive behaviour and assault. 5. Increased risk of shoplifting and other antisocial acts. 6. Contributions to marital/domestic disharmony and breakdown due to emotional and cognitive impairment. 7. Contributions to job loss, unemployment, loss of work through illness. 8. Cost of hospital investigations/consultations/admissions. 9. Adverse effects in pregnancy and in the new-born. 10. Dependence and abuse potential (therapeutic and recreational). 11. Costs of drug prescriptions. 12. Costs of litigation. FURTHER READING Ashton, H. Benzodiazepine withdrawal: outcome in 50 patients. British Journal of Addiction (1987) 82, Ashton, H. Guidelines for the rational use of benzodiazepines. When and what to use. Drugs (1994) 48, Ashton, H. Toxicity and adverse consequences of benzodiazepine use. Psychiatric Annals (1995) 25,

14 CHAPTER II HOW TO WITHDRAW FROM BENZODIAZEPINES AFTER LONG-TERM USE Background Why should you come off benzodiazepines? Before starting benzodiazepine withdrawal Consult your doctor and pharmacist Make sure you have adequate psychological support Get into the right frame of mind Be confident Be patient Choose your own way The withdrawal Dosage tapering Switching to a long-acting benzodiazepine Designing and following the withdrawal schedule Withdrawal in older people Withdrawal of antidepressants Further reading Slow withdrawal schedules Withdrawal from high dose (6mg) alprazolam (Xanax) daily with diazepam (Valium) substitution Simple withdrawal from diazepam (Valium) 40mg daily Withdrawal from lorazepam (Ativan) 6mg daily with diazepam(valium) substitution Withdrawal from nitrazepam (Mogadon) 10mg at night with diazepam(valium) substitution Withdrawal from clonazepam (Klonopin) 1.5mg daily with substitution of diazepam (Valium) Withdrawal from clonazepam (Klonopin) 3mg daily with substitution of diazepam (Valium) Withdrawal from alprazolam (Xanax) 4mg daily with diazepam (Valium) substitution Withdrawal from lorazepam (Ativan) 3mg daily with diazepam (Valium) substitution Withdrawal from temazepam (Restoril) 30mg nightly with diazepam (Valium) substitution Withdrawal from oxazepam (Serax) 20mg three times daily (60mg) with diazepam (Valium) substitution Withdrawal from chlordiazepoxide (Librium) 25mg three times daily (75mg) Withdrawal from zopiclone (Zimovane) 15mg with diazepam (Valium) substitution Antidepressant Withdrawal Table 14

15 CHAPTER II HOW TO WITHDRAW FROM BENZODIAZEPINES AFTER LONG-TERM USE BACKGROUND At the start of my Benzodiazepine Withdrawal Clinic in 1982, no-one had much experience in benzodiazepine withdrawal. Yet, as explained in Chapter I, there was strong pressure from the patients themselves for help and advice on how to withdraw. So, together, we felt our way. At first the withdrawal was a process of mutual trial (and sometimes error), but through this experience some general principles of withdrawal - what works best for most people - emerged. These general principles, derived from the 300 who attended the clinic up till 1994, have been confirmed over succeeding years by hundreds more benzodiazepine users with whom I have been involved through tranquilliser support groups in the UK and abroad and by personal contacts with individuals in many countries. It soon became clear that each person's experience of withdrawal is unique. Although there are many features in common, every individual has his/her own personal pattern of withdrawal symptoms. These differ in type, quality, severity, time-course, duration, and many other features. Such variety is not surprising since the course of withdrawal depends on many factors: the dose, type, potency, duration of action and length of use of a particular benzodiazepine, the reason it was prescribed, the personality and individual vulnerability of the patient, his or her lifestyle, personal stresses and past experiences, the rate of withdrawal, and the degree of support available during and after withdrawal, to name but a few. For this reason the advice about withdrawal which follows is only a general guide; each individual must seek out the details of his own pathway. But the guide is gleaned from the successful withdrawal experiences of a large number of men and women aged with different home backgrounds, occupations, drug histories and rates of withdrawal. The success rate has been high (over 90%), and those who have withdrawn, even after taking benzodiazepines for over 20 years, have felt better both physically and mentally. So, for those starting out, many previous users will testify that almost anyone who really wants to can withdraw from benzodiazepines. But don't be surprised if your symptoms (or lack of them) are different from those of anyone else embarking on the same venture. WHY SHOULD YOU COME OFF BENZODIAZEPINES? As described in Chapter I, long-term use of benzodiazepines can give rise to many unwanted effects, including poor memory and cognition, emotional blunting, depression, increasing anxiety, physical symptoms and dependence. All benzodiazepines can produce these effects whether taken as sleeping pills or anti-anxiety drugs. The social and economic consequences of chronic benzodiazepine use are summarised in Table 3 (Chapter I). Furthermore, the evidence suggests that benzodiazepines are no longer effective after a few weeks or months of regular use. They lose much of their efficacy because of the development of tolerance (see p. 8). When tolerance develops, withdrawal" symptoms can appear even though the user continues to take the drug. Thus the symptoms suffered by many long-term users are a mixture of adverse effects of the drugs and "withdrawal" effects due to tolerance. The Committee on Safety of Medicines and the Royal College of Psychiatrists in the UK concluded in various statements (1988 and 1992) that benzodiazepines are unsuitable for long-term use and that they should in general be prescribed for periods of 2-4 weeks only. In addition, clinical experience shows that most long-term benzodiazepine users actually feel better after coming off the drugs. Many users have remarked that it was not until they came off their drugs that they realised they had been operating below par for all the years they had been taking them. It was as though a net curtain or veil had been lifted from their eyes: slowly, sometimes suddenly, colours became brighter, grass greener, mind clearer, fears vanished, mood lifted, and physical vigour returned. Thus there are good reasons for long-term users to stop their benzodiazepines if they feel unhappy about the medication. Many people are frightened of withdrawal, but reports of having to "go through hell" can be greatly exaggerated. With a sufficiently gradual and individualised tapering schedule, as outlined below, withdrawal can be quite tolerable, even easy, especially when the user understands the cause and nature of 15

16 any symptoms that do arise and is therefore not afraid. Many "withdrawal symptoms" are simply due to fear of withdrawal (or even fear of that fear). People who have had bad experiences have usually been withdrawn too quickly (often by doctors!) and without any explanation of the symptoms. At the other extreme, some people can stop their benzodiazepines with no symptoms at all: according to some authorities, this figure may be as high as 50% even after a year of chronic usage. Even if this figure is correct (which is arguable) it is unwise to stop benzodiazepines suddenly. The advantages of discontinuing benzodiazepines do not necessarily mean that every long-term user should withdraw. Nobody should be forced or persuaded to withdraw against his or her will. In fact, people who are unwillingly pushed into withdrawal often do badly. On the other hand, the chances of success are very high for those sufficiently motivated. As mentioned before, almost anyone who really wants to come off can come off benzodiazepines. The option is up to you. BEFORE STARTING BENZODIAZEPINE WITHDRAWAL Once you have made up your mind to withdraw, there are some steps to take before you start. (1) Consult your doctor. Your doctor may have views on whether it is appropriate for you to stop your benzodiazepines. In a small number of cases withdrawal may be inadvisable. Some doctors, particularly in the US, believe that long-term benzodiazepines are indicated for some anxiety, panic and phobic disorders and some psychiatric conditions. However, medical opinions differ and, even if complete withdrawal is not advised, it may be beneficial to reduce the dosage or to take intermittent courses with benzodiazepine-free intervals. Your doctor's agreement and co-operation is necessary since he/she will be prescribing the medication. Many doctors are uncertain how to manage benzodiazepine withdrawal and hesitate to undertake it. But you can reassure your doctor that you intend to be in charge of your own program and will proceed at whatever pace you find comfortable, although you may value his advice from time to time. It is important for you to be in control of your own schedule. Do not let your doctor impose a deadline. Leave yourself free to "proceed as the way openeth", as the Quakers say. It is a good idea to make out a dosage reduction schedule for the initial stages (see below) and to give your doctor a copy. You may need to mention the importance of flexibility, so that the rate of dosage tapering can be amended at any time. There may even be circumstances when you need to stop for a while at a certain stage. A continuation schedule can follow later depending upon how you get on, and the doctor can continue prescribing in accordance with the new schedule. (All this is explained later in this chapter). Finally, your doctor may appreciate receiving some literature on benzodiazepine withdrawal, for example the articles mentioned under Further Reading at the end of Chapters I & III and of this chapter. (2) Make sure you have adequate psychological support. Support could come from your spouse, partner, family or close friend. An understanding doctor may also be the one to offer support as well as advice. Ideally, your mentor should be someone who understands about benzodiazepine withdrawal or is prepared to read about it and learn. It need not be someone who has gone through withdrawal - sometimes ex-users who have had a bad experience can frighten others by dwelling on their own symptoms. Often the help of a clinical psychologist, trained counsellor, or other therapist is valuable, especially for teaching relaxation techniques, deep breathing, how to deal with a panic attack etc. Some people find alternative techniques such as aromatherapy, acupuncture or yoga helpful, but these probably act only as an aid to relaxation. In my experience, hypnotherapy has not been helpful in long-term benzodiazepine users. Relaxation techniques are described in Chapter III. Rather than (or in addition to) expensive therapists, you need someone reliable, who will support you frequently and regularly, long-term, both during withdrawal and for some months afterwards. Voluntary tranquilliser support groups (self-help groups) can be extremely helpful. They are usually run by people who have been through withdrawal and therefore understand the time and patience required, and can provide information about benzodiazepines. It can be encouraging to find that you are not alone, that there are plenty of others with similar problems to yours. However, do not be misled into fearing that you will get all the symptoms described by the others. Everyone is different and some people, with the right schedule and 16

17 the right support, get no untoward symptoms at all. Many people in fact have managed to come off on their own without any outside help. (3) Get into the right frame of mind. Be confident - you can do it. If in doubt, try a very small reduction in dosage for a few days (for example, try reducing your daily dosage by about one tenth or one eighth; you may be able to achieve this by halving or quartering one of your tablets). You will probably find that you notice no difference. If still in doubt, aim at first for dosage reduction rather than complete withdrawal. You will probably wish to continue once you have started. Be patient. There is no need to hurry withdrawal. Your body (and brain) may need time to readjust after years of being on benzodiazepines. Many people have taken a year or more to complete the withdrawal. So don't rush, and, above all, do not try to stop suddenly. Choose your own way - don't expect a "quick fix". It may be possible to enter a hospital or special centre for "detoxification". Such an approach usually involves a fairly rapid withdrawal, is medically "safe" and may provide psychological support. Such centres may be suitable for a small minority of people with difficult psychological problems. However, they often remove the control of withdrawal from the patient and setbacks on returning home are common, largely because there has been no time to build up alternative living skills. Slow withdrawal in your own environment allows time for physical and psychological adjustments, permits you to continue with your normal life, to tailor your withdrawal to your own lifestyle, and to build up alternative strategies for living without benzodiazepines. THE WITHDRAWAL (1) Dosage tapering. There is absolutely no doubt that anyone withdrawing from long-term benzodiazepines must reduce the dosage slowly. Abrupt or over-rapid withdrawal, especially from high dosage, can give rise to severe symptoms (convulsions, psychotic reactions, acute anxiety states) and may increase the risk of protracted withdrawal symptoms (see Chapter III). Slow withdrawal means tapering dosage gradually, usually over a period of some months. The aim is to obtain a smooth, steady and slow decline in blood and tissue concentrations of benzodiazepines so that the natural systems in the brain can recover their normal state. As explained in Chapter I, long-term benzodiazepines take over many of the functions of the body's natural tranquilliser system, mediated by the neurotransmitter GABA. As a result, GABA receptors in the brain reduce in numbers and GABA function decreases. Sudden withdrawal from benzodiazepines leaves the brain in a state of GABA-underactivity, resulting in hyperexcitability of the nervous system. This hyperexcitability is the root cause of most of the withdrawal symptoms discussed in the next chapter. However, a sufficiently slow, and smooth, departure of benzodiazepines from the body permits the natural systems to regain control of the functions which have been damped down by their presence. There is scientific evidence that reinstatement of brain function takes a long time. Recovery after long-term benzodiazepine use is not unlike the gradual recuperation of the body after a major surgical operation. Healing, of body or mind, is a slow process. The precise rate of withdrawal is an individual matter. It depends on many factors including the dose and type of benzodiazepine used, duration of use, personality, lifestyle, previous experience, specific vulnerabilities, and the (perhaps genetically determined) speed of your recovery systems. Usually the best judge is you, yourself; you must be in control and must proceed at the pace that is comfortable for you. You may need to resist attempts from outsiders (clinics, doctors) to persuade you into a rapid withdrawal. The classic six weeks withdrawal period adopted by many clinics and doctors is much too fast for many longterm users. Actually, the rate of withdrawal, as long as it is slow enough, is not critical. Whether it takes 6 months, 12 months or 18 months is of little significance if you have taken benzodiazepines for a matter of years. It is sometimes claimed that very slow withdrawal from benzodiazepines "merely prolongs the agony" and it is better to get it over with as quickly as possible. However, the experience of most patients is that slow withdrawal is greatly preferable, especially when the subject dictates the pace. Indeed, many patients find that there is little or no "agony" involved. Nevertheless there is no magic rate of withdrawal and each person must find the pace that suits him best. People who have been on low doses of benzodiazepine for a 17

18 relatively short time (less than a year) can usually withdraw fairly rapidly. Those who have been on high doses of potent benzodiazepines such as Xanax and Klonopin are likely to need more time. Examples of slow withdrawal schedules are given at the end of this chapter. As a very rough guide, a person taking 40mg diazepam a day (or its equivalent) might be able to reduce the daily dosage by 2mg every 1-2 weeks until a dose of 20mg diazepam a day is reached. This would take weeks. From 20mg diazepam a day, reductions of 1 mg in daily dosage every week or two might be preferable. This would take a further weeks, so the total withdrawal might last weeks. Yet some people might prefer to reduce faster and some might go even slower. (See next section for further details). However, it is important in withdrawal always to go forwards. If you reach a difficult point, you can stop there for a few weeks if necessary, but you should try to avoid going backwards and increasing your dosage again. Some doctors advocate the use of "escape pills" (an extra dose of benzodiazepines) in particularly stressful situations. This is probably not a good idea as it interrupts the smooth decline in benzodiazepine concentrations and also disrupts the process of learning to cope without drugs which is an essential part of the adaptation to withdrawal. If the withdrawal is slow enough, "escape pills" should not be necessary. (2) Switching to a long-acting benzodiazepine. With relatively short-acting benzodiazepines such as alprazolam (Xanax) and lorazepam (Ativan) (Table 1, Chapter I), it is not possible to achieve a smooth decline in blood and tissue concentrations. These drugs are eliminated fairly rapidly with the result that concentrations fluctuate with peaks and troughs between each dose. It is necessary to take the tablets several times a day and many people experience a "mini-withdrawal", sometimes a craving, between each dose. For people withdrawing from these potent, short-acting drugs it is advisable to switch to a long-acting, slowly metabolised benzodiazepine such as diazepam. Diazepam (Valium) is one of the most slowly eliminated benzodiazepines. It has a half-life of up to 200 hours, which means that the blood level for each dose falls by only half in about 8.3 days. The only other benzodiazepines with similar half-lives are chlordiazepoxide (Librium), flunitrazepam (Rohypnol) and flurazepam (Dalmane), all of which are converted to a diazepam metabolite in the body. The slow elimination of diazepam allows a smooth, gradual fall in blood level, allowing the body to adjust slowly to a decreasing concentration of the benzodiazepines. The switch-over process needs to be carried out gradually, usually in stepwise fashion, substituting one dose at a time. There are several factors to consider. One is the difference in potency between different benzodiazepines. Many people have suffered because they have been switched suddenly to a different, less potent drug in inadequate dosage because the doctor has not adequately considered this factor. Equivalent potencies of benzodiazepines are shown in Table 1 (Chapter I), but these are only approximate and differ between individuals. A second factor to bear in mind is that the various benzodiazepines, though broadly similar, have slightly different profiles of action. For example, lorazepam (Ativan) seems to have less hypnotic activity than diazepam (probably because it is shorter acting). Thus if someone on, say, 2mg Ativan three times a day is directly switched to 60mg diazepam (the equivalent dose for anxiety) he is liable to become extremely sleepy, but if he is switched suddenly onto a much smaller dose of diazepam, he will probably get withdrawal symptoms. Making the changeover one dose (or part of dose) at a time avoids this difficulty and also helps to find the equivalent dosage for that individual. It is also helpful to make the first substitution in the night-time dose, and the substitution may not always need to be complete. For example, if the evening dose was 2mg Ativan, this could in some cases be changed to 1 mg Ativan plus 8mg diazepam. A full substitution for the dropped 1 mg of Ativan would have been 10mg diazepam. However, the patient may actually sleep well on this combination and he will have already made a dosage reduction - a first step in withdrawal. Examples of step-wise substitutions are given in the schedules at the end of this chapter. A third important practical factor is the available dosage formulations of the various benzodiazepines. In withdrawal you need a long-acting drug which can be reduced in very small steps. Diazepam (Valium) is the only benzodiazepine that is ideal for this purpose since it comes in 2mg tablets, which are scored down the middle and easily halved into 1 mg doses. By contrast, the smallest available tablet of lorazepam (Ativan) is 0.5mg (equivalent to 5mg diazepam) [in the UK the lowest available dosage form for lorazepam is 1mg]; the smallest tablet of alprazolam (Xanax) is 0.25mg (also equivalent to 5mg diazepam). Even by halving these tablets the smallest reduction one could easily make is the equivalent of 2.5mg diazepam. (Some patients become very adept at shaving small portions off their tablets). Because of limited dose formulations, it may 18

19 be necessary to switch to diazepam even if you are on a fairly long-acting benzodiazepine of relatively low potency (e.g. flurazepam [Dalmane]). Liquid preparations of some benzodiazepines are available and if desired slow reduction from these can be accomplished by decreasing the volume of each dose, using a graduated syringe. Some doctors in the US switch patients onto clonazepam (Klonopin, [Rivotril in Canada]), believing that it will be easier to withdraw from than say alprazolam (Xanax) or lorazepam (Ativan) because it is more slowly eliminated. However, Klonopin is far from ideal for this purpose. It is an extremely potent drug, is eliminated much faster than diazepam (See Table 1, Chapter I), and the smallest available tablet in the US is 0.5mg (equivalent to 10mg diazepam) and 0.25mg in Canada (equivalent to 5mg Valium). It is difficult with this drug to achieve a smooth, slow fall in blood concentration, and there is some evidence that withdrawal is particularly difficult from high potency benzodiazepines, including Klonopin. Some people, however, appear to have particular difficulty in switching from Klonopin to diazepam. In such cases it is possible to have special capsules made up containing small doses, e.g. an eighth or a sixteenth of a milligram or less, which can be used to make gradual dosage reductions straight from Klonopin. These capsules require a doctor's prescription and can be made up by hospital pharmacists and some chemists in the UK, and by compounding pharmacists in North America. A similar technique can be used for those on other benzodiazepines who find it hard to substitute diazepam. To locate a compounding pharmacist in the USA or Canada this web site may be useful: Care must be taken to ensure that the compounding pharmacist can guarantee the same formula on each prescription renewal. It should be noted, however, that this approach to benzodiazepine withdrawal can be troublesome and is not recommended for general use. (3) Designing and following the withdrawal schedule. Some examples of withdrawal schedules are given on later pages. Most of them are actual schedules which have been used and found to work by real people who withdrew successfully. But each schedule must be tailored to individual needs; no two schedules are necessarily the same. Below is a summary of points to consider when drawing up your own schedule. 1. Design the schedule around your own symptoms. For example, if insomnia is a major problem, take most of your dosage at bedtime; if getting out of the house in the morning is a difficulty, take some of the dose first thing (but not a large enough dose to make you sleepy or incompetent at driving!). 2. When switching over to diazepam, substitute one dose at a time, usually starting with the evening or night-time dose, then replace the other doses, one by one, at intervals of a few days or a week. Unless you are starting from very large doses, there is no need to aim for a reduction at this stage; simply aim for an approximately equivalent dosage. When you have done this, you can start reducing the diazepam slowly. If, however, you are on a high dose, such as 6mg alprazolam (equivalent to 120mg diazepam), you may need to undertake some reduction while switching over, and may need to switch only part of the dosage at a time (see Schedule 1). The aim is to find a dose of diazepam which largely prevents withdrawal symptoms but is not so excessive as to make you sleepy. 3. Diazepam is very slowly eliminated and needs only, at most, twice daily administration to achieve smooth blood concentrations. If you are taking benzodiazepines three or four times a day it is advisable to space out your dosage to twice daily once you are on diazepam. The less often you take tablets the less your day will revolve around your medication. 4. The larger the dose you are taking initially, the greater the size of each dose reduction can be. You could aim at reducing dosage by up to one tenth at each decrement. For example, if you are taking 40mg diazepam equivalent you could reduce at first by 2-4mg every week or two. When you are down to 20mg, reductions could be 1-2mg weekly or fortnightly. When you are down to 10mg, 1mg reductions are probably indicated. From 5mg diazepam some people prefer to reduce by 0.5mg every week or two. 5. There is no need to draw up your withdrawal schedule right up to the end. It is usually sensible to plan the first few weeks and then review and if necessary amend your schedule according to your progress. Prepare your doctor to be flexible and to be ready for your schedule to be adjusted to a slower (or faster) pace at any time. 6. As far as possible, never go backwards. You can stand still at a certain stage in your schedule and have a vacation from further withdrawal for a few weeks if circumstances change (if for instance there is a family 19

20 crisis), but try to avoid ever increasing the dosage again. You don't want to back over ground you have already covered. 7. Avoid taking extra tablets in times of stress. Learn to gain control over your symptoms. This will give you extra confidence that you can cope without benzodiazepines (see Chapter III, Withdrawal Symptoms). 8. Avoid compensating for benzodiazepines by increasing your intake of alcohol, cannabis or nonprescription drugs. Occasionally your doctor may suggest other drugs for particular symptoms (see Chapter III, Withdrawal Symptoms), but do not take the sleeping tablets zolpidem (Ambien), zopiclone (Zimovane, Imovane) or Zaleplon (Sonata) as they have the same actions as benzodiazepines. 9. Getting off the last tablet: Stopping the last few milligrams is often viewed as particularly difficult. This is mainly due to fear of how you will cope without any drug at all. In fact, the final parting is surprisingly easy. People are usually delighted by the new sense of freedom gained. In any case the 1mg or 0.5mg diazepam per day which you are taking at the end of your schedule is having little effect apart from keeping the dependence going. Do not be tempted to spin out the withdrawal to a ridiculously slow rate towards the end (such as 0.25mg each month). Take the plunge when you reach 0.5mg daily; full recovery cannot begin until you have got off your tablets completely. Some people after completing withdrawal like to carry around a few tablets with them for security just in case, but find that they rarely if ever use them. 10. Do not become obsessed with your withdrawal schedule. Let it just become a normal way of life for the next few months. Okay, you are withdrawing from your benzodiazepines; so are many others. It's no big deal. 11. If for any reason you do not (or did not) succeed at your first attempt at benzodiazepine withdrawal, you can always try again. They say that most smokers make 7 or 8 attempts before they finally give up cigarettes. The good news is that most long-term benzodiazepine users are successful after the first attempt. Those who need a second try have usually been withdrawn too quickly the first time. A slow and steady benzodiazepine withdrawal, with you in control, is nearly always successful. (4) Withdrawal in older people. Older people can withdraw from benzodiazepines as successfully as younger people, even if they have taken the drugs for years. A recent trial with an elderly population of 273 general practice patients on long-term (mean 15 years) benzodiazepines showed that voluntary dosage reduction and total withdrawal of benzodiazepines was accompanied by better sleep, improvement in psychological and physical health and fewer visits to doctors. These findings have been repeated in several other studies of elderly patients taking benzodiazepines long-term. There are particularly compelling reasons why older people should withdraw from benzodiazepines since, as age advances, they become more prone to falls and fractures, confusion, memory loss and psychiatric problems (see Chapter 1). Methods of benzodiazepine withdrawal in older people are similar to those recommended above for younger adults. A slow tapering regimen, in my experience, is easily tolerated, even by people in their 80s who have taken benzodiazepines for 20 or more years. The schedule may include the use of liquid preparations if available and judicious stepwise substitution with diazepam (Valium) if necessary. There is, of course, a great deal of variation in the age at which individuals become older perhaps years would fit the definition in most cases. (5) Antidepressants. Many people taking benzodiazepines long-term have also been prescribed antidepressant drugs because of developing depression, either during chronic use or during withdrawal. Antidepressant drugs should also be tapered slowly since they too can cause a withdrawal reaction (euphemistically labelled antidepressant discontinuation reaction by psychiatrists). If you are taking an antidepressant drug as well as a benzodiazepine it is best to complete the benzodiazepine withdrawal before starting to taper the antidepressant. A list of antidepressant drugs and brief advice on how to taper them is given in Table 13 of this chapter. Some antidepressant withdrawal ( discontinuation ) symptoms are shown in Chapter III (Table 2). The above summary applies to people who are planning to manage their own withdrawal - probably the majority of readers. Those who have the help of a knowledgeable and understanding doctor or counsellor 20